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Wednesday, December 31, 2025

рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдХे 100 рд╡рд░्рд╖: ‘рд░ाрдЧ рджрд░рдмाрд░ी’ рдХे рд░рдЪрдиाрдХाрд░ рдХी рд╕्рдоृрддि-рд╢ेрд╖

 

рд╣िрди्рджी рд╕ाрд╣िрдд्рдп рдХे рдорд╣ाрди рд▓ेрдЦрдХ рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдХा рдХाрд▓рдЬрдпी рдЙрдкрди्рдпाрд╕ ‘рд░ाрдЧ рджрд░рдмाрд░ी’ рдЬрдм рдкрд╣рд▓ी рдмाрд░ рд╕ाрдордиे рдЖрдпा, рддो рд╣िрди्рджी рд╕ाрд╣िрдд्рдп рдХी рджुрдиिрдпा рдХे рдХुрдЫ рд╣िрд╕्рд╕ों рдоें рдЙрд╕े рдЙрдкेрдХ्рд╖ा рдФрд░ рдЙрдкрд╣ाрд╕ рдХा рд╕ाрдордиा рдХрд░рдиा рдкрдб़ा। рдк्рд░рд╕िрдж्рдз рдЖрд▓ोрдЪрдХ рдиेрдоीрдЪंрдж рдЬैрди рдиे рдЗрд╕े 'рдЕрд╕ंрддोрд╖ рдХा рд╢ोрд░' рдХрд╣ा, рдЬрдмрдХि рд╢्рд░ीрдкрдд рд░ाрдп рдиे рдЗрд╕े 'рдорд╣ाрди рдКрдм рдХा рдорд╣ाрди рдЙрдкрди्рдпाрд╕' рдХрд░ाрд░ рджिрдпा।

рд▓ेрдХिрди рд╕рдордп рдиे рдЗрди рдЖрдХрд▓рдиों рдХो рдЧ़рд▓рдд рд╕ाрдмिрдд рдХिрдпा। рдЕрдЧрд▓े рд╣ी рд╡рд░्рд╖ 1969 рдоें рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдХो ‘рд░ाрдЧ рджрд░рдмाрд░ी’ рдХे рд▓िрдП рд╕ाрд╣िрдд्рдп рдЕрдХाрджрдоी рдкुрд░рд╕्рдХाрд░ рдоिрд▓ा। рдпрд╣ рд╡्рдпंрдЧ्рдпाрдд्рдордХ рдЙрдкрди्рдпाрд╕ рдЖрдЬ рд╣िрди्рджी рд╕ाрд╣िрдд्рдп рдХी рд╕рдмрд╕े рдЕрдзिрдХ рдкрдв़ी рдФрд░ рдЕрдиूрджिрдд рдХृрддिрдпों рдоें рд╢ाрдоिрд▓ рд╣ै। рдмुрдзрд╡ाрд░ рдХो рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдХी рдЬрди्рдорд╢рддी рдкूрд░ी рд╣ुрдИ - рд╡े рдЖрдЬ 100 рд╡рд░्рд╖ рдХे рд╣ोрддे।

1968 рдоें рдк्рд░рдХाрд╢िрдд ‘рд░ाрдЧ рджрд░рдмाрд░ी’ рдиे рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдХो рд╣िрди्рджी рд╡्рдпंрдЧ्рдп-рдкрд░ंрдкрд░ा рдХा рдкрд░्рдпाрдп рдмрдиा рджिрдпा। 2011 рдоें рдЙрдирдХे рдиिрдзрди рддрдХ рд╡े 25 рд╕े рдЕрдзिрдХ рдкुрд╕्рддрдХें рд▓िрдЦ рдЪुрдХे рдеे, рдЬिрдирдоें ‘рдордХाрди’, ‘рд╕ूрдиी рдШाрдЯी рдХा рд╕ूрд░рдЬ’, ‘рдкрд╣рд▓ा рдкрдб़ाрд╡’ рдФрд░ ‘рдмिрд╢्рд░ाрдордкुрд░ рдХा рд╕ंрдд’ рдк्рд░рдоुрдЦ рд╣ैं। 2005 рдоें рдк्рд░рдХाрд╢िрдд рдиिрдмंрдз-рд╕ंрдЧ्рд░рд╣ ‘рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓: рдЬीрд╡рди рд╣ी рдЬीрд╡рди’ рдоें, рдоोрд╣рдирд▓ाрд▓рдЧंрдЬ (рдЙрдд्рддрд░ рдк्рд░рджेрд╢) рдоें рдЬрди्рдоे рдЖрдИрдПрдПрд╕ рдЕрдзिрдХाрд░ी рдиे рд▓िрдЦा рдХि ‘рд░ाрдЧ рджрд░рдмाрд░ी’ рдиे рдЙрди्рд╣ें рд▓рдЧрднрдЧ рдЫрд╣ рд╡рд░्рд╖ों рддрдХ рдмीрдоाрд░ рд░рдЦा। рд╡े рд╕्рд╡рдпं рдХो 'рдПрдХ рдЬिрдо्рдоेрджाрд░ рдЧृрд╣рд╕्рде, рдЬो рдПрдХ рдк्рд░ेрдоिрдХा рдХे рд╕ाрде рд░рд╣ рд░рд╣ा рд╣ो' рдЬैрд╕ा рдорд╣рд╕ूрд╕ рдХрд░рдиे рд▓рдЧे рдеे।

рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рд▓िрдЦрддे рд╣ैं -

“рджिрди-рд░ाрдд рдЙрди рдмрджрддрдоीрдЬ़ рдкाрдд्рд░ों рдХे рд╕ाрде рд░рд╣рддे рд╣ुрдП рдоेрд░ी рдЬ़рдмाрди рдШिрд╕ рдЧрдИ। рднрдж्рд░ рдорд╣िрд▓ाрдПँ рдЦाрдиे рдХी рдоेрдЬ़ рдкрд░ рднौंрд╣ें рдЪрдв़ाрдиे рд▓рдЧीं। рдоैं рдкрд░िрд╡ाрд░ рд╕े рдмрдЪрдиे рд▓рдЧा рдФрд░ рдкрд░िрд╡ाрд░ рдоुрдЭрд╕े। рд╕рдорд╕्рдпा рдпрд╣ рдеी рдХि рдХिрддाрдм рд▓िрдЦрдиे рдХे рд▓िрдП рдХोрдИ рдЬрдЧрд╣ рдаीрдХ рдирд╣ीं рд▓рдЧрддी рдеी। рдЖрдЦ़िрд░рдХाрд░ рдоैंрдиे рдЕрдкрдиा рдШрд░ рдкрдд्рдиी, рдмрдЪ्рдЪों рдФрд░ рд░िрд╢्рддेрджाрд░ों рдХे рд╣рд╡ाрд▓े рдХिрдпा, рдЕрд▓рдЧ рдл़्рд▓ैрдЯ рд▓े рд▓िрдпा, рдХाрд░ рдХो рд╕ुрдирд╕ाрди рдЬрдЧрд╣ рдЦрдб़ा рдХिрдпा рдФрд░ рдорд╣ीрдиों рддрдХ рдЙрд╕рдХी рд╕ीрдЯ рдкрд░ рдмैрдардХрд░ рд▓िрдЦा।”

рдХाрд▓्рдкрдиिрдХ рдЧाँрд╡ рд╢िрд╡рдкाрд▓рдЧंрдЬ рдоें рд╕्рдеिрдд ‘рд░ाрдЧ рджрд░рдмाрд░ी’ рджрд░рдЕрд╕рд▓ рднाрд░рдд рдХी рд╕рдд्рддा-рд╕ंрд░рдЪрдиा рдкрд░ рддीрдЦा рд╡्рдпंрдЧ्рдп рд╣ै, рдЬрд╣ाँ рдЧाँрд╡ рдкूрд░े рджेрд╢ рдХा рд░ूрдкрдХ рдмрди рдЬाрддा рд╣ै - рдПрдХ рдРрд╕ा рд░ाрд╖्рдЯ्рд░ рдЬो рд╢ाрд╕рди рдФрд░ рдиैрддिрдХрддा рджोрдиों рдоें рдЕрд╕рдлрд▓ рд░рд╣ा рд╣ै। рдЗрд╕ рдЙрдкрди्рдпाрд╕ рдХी рддाрдХ़рдд рдЗрд╕рдХे рдкाрдд्рд░ рд╣ैं - рдиैрддिрдХ рд╕ंрддुрд▓рди рд╕े рд╡िрд╣ीрди, рд╢िрд╖्рдЯाрдЪाрд░ рд╕े рд░рд╣िрдд - рдЬो рдПрдХ рдРрд╕े рд╕рдоाрдЬ рдХी рд╕ाрдоूрд╣िрдХ рддрд╕्рд╡ीрд░ рдкेрд╢ рдХрд░рддे рд╣ैं рдЬрд╣ाँ рдн्рд░рд╖्рдЯाрдЪाрд░ рд╕ाрдоाрди्рдп рд╣ै, рдЖрджрд░्рд╢ рдХेрд╡рд▓ рд╕рдЬाрд╡рдЯी рд╣ैं рдФрд░ рдИрдоाрдирджाрд░ी рдирд╣ीं рдмрд▓्рдХि рдЕрдиुрдХूрд▓рди рд╣ी рдЬीрд╡िрдд рд░рд╣рдиे рдХा рд╕ाрдзрди рд╣ै।

рдХрд╡ि рдФрд░ рдЖрд▓ोрдЪрдХ рдЕрд╢ोрдХ рд╡ाрдЬрдкेрдпी рдХे рдЕрдиुрд╕ाрд░, рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдиे рднाрд░рдд рдоें рд╡िрдХाрд╕ рдХो рд▓ेрдХрд░ рдмрдиे рдоिрдердХ рдХो рддोрдб़ा। рдЙрди्рд╣ोंрдиे рдХрд╣ा, “‘рд░ाрдЧ рджрд░рдмाрд░ी’ рдоें рдЙрди्рд╣ोंрдиे рджिрдЦाрдпा рдХि рддрдеाрдХрдеिрдд рд╡िрдХाрд╕ рдХिрд╕ рддрд░рд╣ рд╡िрд░ोрдзाрднाрд╕ों, рдн्рд░рд╖्рдЯाрдЪाрд░, рджेрд░ी, рд▓ाрдкрд░рд╡ाрд╣ी рдФрд░ рдЬрдб़рддा рд╕े рднрд░ा рд╣ुрдЖ рд╣ै рдФрд░ рдпрд╣ рдЖрдо рд▓ोрдЧों рдХे рдЬीрд╡рди рдХो рдХैрд╕े рдк्рд░рднाрд╡िрдд рдХрд░рддा рд╣ै।”

рд╡ाрдЬрдкेрдпी рдХे рдЕрдиुрд╕ाрд░, рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рд╣िрди्рджी рд╕ाрд╣िрдд्рдп рдоें рдЖрдзुрдиिрдХрддा рдХे рдорд╣рдд्рдд्рд╡рдкूрд░्рдг рдЗрддिрд╣ाрд╕рдХाрд░ рднी рдеे।

“рдкिрдЫрд▓े рд╕ौ рд╡рд░्рд╖ों рдХे рд╣िрди्рджी рд╕ाрд╣िрдд्рдп рдоें рд╡े рдиिрд╕्рд╕ंрджेрд╣ рдПрдХ рдорд╣ाрди рд╣рд╕्рддी рд╣ैं। рдпे рд╕ौ рд╡рд░्рд╖ рд╣िрди्рджी рд╕ाрд╣िрдд्рдп рдХी рдЖрдзुрдиिрдХрддा рдХे рднी рд╕ौ рд╡рд░्рд╖ рд╣ैं, рдФрд░ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рди рдХेрд╡рд▓ рдЗрд╕рдХे рд╣िрд╕्рд╕ेрджाрд░ рдеे, рдмрд▓्рдХि рдЗрд╕рдХे рджрд╕्рддाрд╡ेрдЬ़рдХाрд░ рднी।”

рд░ाрдЬрдХрдорд▓ рдк्рд░рдХाрд╢рди рдХे рдЕрдз्рдпрдХ्рд╖ рдЕрд╢ोрдХ рдорд╣ेрд╢्рд╡рд░ी рдХрд╣рддे рд╣ैं рдХि "рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдиे рдЧाँрд╡ рдХा рд╡рд╣ рд░ूрдк рджिрдЦाрдпा рдЬो рдк्рд░ेрдордЪंрдж рдпा рдоैрдеिрд▓ीрд╢рд░рдг рдЧुрдк्рдд рдЬैрд╕े рд▓ेрдЦрдХ рднी рдкूрд░ी рддрд░рд╣ рдирд╣ीं рджिрдЦा рдкाрдП।‘рд░ाрдЧ рджрд░рдмाрд░ी’ рдЧाँрд╡ों рдХी рдХुрд░ूрдкрддा, рд░ाрдЬрдиीрддिрдХ рдЪाрд▓рдмाрдЬ़िрдпों рдФрд░ рдЖрдо рд▓ोрдЧों рдХी рдХрдаिрдиाрдЗрдпों рдХो рдпрдеाрд░्рде рд░ूрдк рдоें рд╕ाрдордиे рд░рдЦрддा рд╣ै। рдпрд╣ी рдХाрд░рдг рд╣ै рдХि рдпрд╣ рдЙрдкрди्рдпाрд╕ рдЖрдЬ рднी рдк्рд░ाрд╕ंрдЧिрдХ рд╣ै।”

рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдХी рд░рдЪрдиाрдУं рдоें рдиैрддिрдХ рдФрд░ рд░ाрдЬрдиीрддिрдХ рдкрддрди рдПрдХ рд╕्рдеाрдпी рд╡िрд╖рдп рд░рд╣ा।

‘рдордХाрди’ рдоें рд╕िрддाрд░рд╡ाрджрдХ рдиाрд░ाрдпрдг рдмрдирд░्рдЬी рдХрд▓ा рдХी рд╢ुрдж्рдзрддा рдФрд░ рд╕ांрд╕ाрд░िрдХ рд╕рдлрд▓рддा рдХे рдмीрдЪ рдлँрд╕ा рд░рд╣рддा рд╣ै, рдЬрдмрдХि ‘рдмिрд╢्рд░ाрдордкुрд░ рдХा рд╕ंрдд’ рд╕्рд╡рддंрдд्рд░рддा рдХे рдмाрдж рдХे рднाрд░рдд рдоें рд▓ोрдХрддंрдд्рд░ рдХी рд╡िрдлрд▓рддाрдУं рдХो рдЙрдЬाрдЧрд░ рдХрд░рддा рд╣ै।

рдЙрдкрди्рдпाрд╕рдХाрд░ рдЕрд╕рдЧрд░ рд╡рдЬाрд╣рдд рдХे рдЕрдиुрд╕ाрд░, "рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдХो рд╕рдордЭрдиे рдХे рд▓िрдП рдХेрд╡рд▓ ‘рд░ाрдЧ рджрд░рдмाрд░ी’ рдкрдв़рдиा рдкрд░्рдпाрдк्рдд рдирд╣ीं рд╣ै। рдЙрдирдХी рдЕрди्рдп рд░рдЪрдиाрдПँ рднी рдЙрддрдиी рд╣ी рдорд╣рдд्рдд्рд╡рдкूрд░्рдг рд╣ैं। рдЙрди्рд╣ें рд╕рд╣ी рдоाрдпрдиे рдоें рд╕рдордЭрдиे рдХे рд▓िрдП рдкूрд░ा рд╕ाрд╣िрдд्рдп рдкрдв़рдиा рдЬ़рд░ूрд░ी рд╣ै।”


рд╢्рд░ीрд▓ाрд▓ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдХो 1999 рдоें ‘рдмिрд╢्рд░ाрдордкुрд░ рдХा рд╕ंрдд’ рдХे рд▓िрдП рд╡्рдпाрд╕ рд╕рдо्рдоाрди, 2008 рдоें рдкрдж्рдо рднूрд╖рдг рдФрд░ 2011 рдоें рдЬ्рдЮाрдирдкीрда рдкुрд░рд╕्рдХाрд░ рд╕े рд╕рдо्рдоाрдиिрдд рдХिрдпा рдЧрдпा। рд╡्рдпंрдЧ्рдп рд╕े рдврдХी рдЙрдирдХी рдпрдеाрд░्рдердкрд░рдХ рд╢ैрд▓ी рдиे рди рддो рдкीрдб़िрддों рдХा рдорд╣िрдоाрдоंрдбрди рдХिрдпा рдФрд░ рди рд╣ी рд╢рдХ्рддिрдпों рдХा рджाрдирд╡ीрдХрд░рдг - рдЙрдирдХी рдЖрд▓ोрдЪрдиा рдХा рднाрд░ рд╕्рд╡рдпं рд╡िрдбंрдмрдиा рдиे рдЙрдаाрдпा।


‘рд░ाрдЧ рджрд░рдмाрд░ी’ рдХे рдЕंрдд рдоें рд╡े рдордз्рдпрд╡рд░्рдЧीрдп рд╡्рдпрдХ्рддि рд╕े рдХрд╣рддे рд╣ैं - 

“рдЬрд╣ाँ рднी рдЬрдЧрд╣ рдоिрд▓े, рдЬाрдХрд░ рдЫिрдк рдЬाрдУ। рднाрдЧो, рднाрдЧो, рднाрдЧो। рдпрдеाрд░्рде рддुрдо्рд╣ाрд░ा рдкीрдЫा рдХрд░ рд░рд╣ा рд╣ै।”

рдкुрд╕्рддрдХ рдЦрд░ीрджрдиे рдХे рд▓िрдП рдХ्рд▓िрдХ рдХрд░ें

рдирд╡ рд╡рд░्рд╖

рдХ्рдпा рез рдЬрдирд╡рд░ी рдХो рд╕рдЪ рдоें рдирдпा рд╕ाрд▓ рдХा рдкрд╣рд▓ा рджिрди рдоाрдиा рдЬा рд╕рдХрддा рд╣ै?

рд╣ां, рдЧ्рд░ेрдЧोрд░िрдпрди рдХैрд▓ेंрдбрд░ рдХे рдЕрдиुрд╕ाрд░ 1 рдЬрдирд╡рд░ी рдХो рдирдпा рд╕ाрд▓ рдХा рдкрд╣рд▓ा рджिрди рдоाрдиा рдЬाрддा рд╣ै, рдЬो рджुрдиिрдпा рднрд░ рдоें рдЖрдзिрдХाрд░िрдХ рд░ूрдк рд╕े рдЗрд╕्рддेрдоाрд▓ рд╣ोрддा рд╣ै। рд▓ेрдХिрди рднाрд░рддीрдп рд╣िंрджू рдкंрдЪांрдЧ рдХे рд╡िрдХ्рд░рдо рд╕ंрд╡рдд рдоें рдирдпा рд╕ाрд▓ рдЪैрдд्рд░ рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдк्рд░рддिрдкрджा рд╕े рд╢ुрд░ू рд╣ोрддा рд╣ै, рдЬो 2026 рдоें 19 рдоाрд░्рдЪ рдХो рд╣ै। рдЦрдЧोрд▓ीрдп рд░ूрдк рд╕े рд╕ौрд░ рд╡рд░्рд╖ рд╡рд╕ंрдд рд╡िрд╖ुрд╡ (рд▓рдЧрднрдЧ 20-21 рдоाрд░्рдЪ) рд╕े рд╢ुрд░ू рд╣ोрддा рд╣ै, рдЗрд╕рд▓िрдП 1 рдЬрдирд╡рд░ी рдк्рд░рдХृрддि рдХे рдЪрдХ्рд░ рд╕े рдЬुрдб़ा рдирд╣ीं।


рдЧ्рд░ेрдЧोрд░िрдпрди рдХैрд▓ेंрдбрд░ рдХी рд╢ुрд░ुрдЖрдд

рдк्рд░ाрдЪीрди рд░ोрдо рдоें рдЬрдирд╡рд░ी рд░ोрдорди рджेрд╡рддा рдЬाрдиूрд╕ (рджो рдоुрдЦ рд╡ाрд▓ा, рдЕрддीрдд-рднрд╡िрд╖्рдп рдХा рдк्рд░рддीрдХ) рдХे рдиाрдо рдкрд░ рд░рдЦी рдЧрдИ। рдЬूрд▓िрдпрд╕ рд╕ीрдЬрд░ рдиे 45 рдИрд╕ा рдкूрд░्рд╡ рдЬूрд▓िрдпрди рдХैрд▓ेंрдбрд░ рдоें 1 рдЬрдирд╡рд░ी рдХो рдирдпा рд╕ाрд▓ рдмрдиाрдпा, рдЬिрд╕े рдкोрдк рдЧ्рд░ेрдЧोрд░ी XIII рдиे 1582 рдоें рд╕ुрдзाрд░рдХрд░ рдЧ्рд░ेрдЧोрд░िрдпрди рдХैрд▓ेंрдбрд░ рд╕्рдеाрдкिрдд рдХिрдпा। рдпрд╣ рдХैрд▓ेंрдбрд░ рд╕ूрд░्рдп рдХी рдкрд░िрдХ्рд░рдоा рдкрд░ рдЖрдзाрд░िрдд рд╣ै, рд▓ेрдХिрди рд╕рдЯीрдХ рд╕ौрд░ рд╡рд░्рд╖ (365.242 рджिрди) рд╕े рдеोрдб़ा рдЕрд▓рдЧ।


рд╣िंрджू рдкрд░ंрдкрд░ा рдоें рдирдпा рд╕ाрд▓

рд╣िंрджू рдирд╡рд╡рд░्рд╖ рдЪैрдд्рд░ рдоाрд╕ рдХे рд╢ुрдХ्рд▓ рдкрдХ्рд╖ рдк्рд░рддिрдкрджा рд╕े рдордиाрдпा рдЬाрддा рд╣ै, рдЬрдм рдм्рд░рд╣्рдоा рдиे рд╕ृрд╖्рдЯि рд░рдЪी। рд╡िрдХ्рд░рдо рд╕ंрд╡рдд 2083 19 рдоाрд░्рдЪ 2026 рд╕े рд╢ुрд░ू рд╣ोрдЧा, рдЬिрд╕े рдЧुрдб़ी рдкрдб़рд╡ा рдпा рдпुрдЧाрджी рднी рдХрд╣рддे рд╣ैं। рдЪंрдж्рд░-рд╕ौрд░ рдкंрдЪांрдЧ рдкрд░ рдЖрдзाрд░िрдд рд╣ै, рдЬो рдЛрддु рдЪрдХ्рд░ рд╕े рдЬुрдб़ा।


рдЦрдЧोрд▓ीрдп рджृрд╖्рдЯि

рдЯ्рд░ॉрдкिрдХрд▓ рд╕ौрд░ рд╡рд░्рд╖ рд╡рд╕ंрдд рд╡िрд╖ुрд╡ рд╕े рд╢ुрд░ू рд╣ोрддा рд╣ै (рдЙрдд्рддрд░ी рдЧोрд▓ाрд░्рдз рдоें рдоाрд░्рдЪ), рдЬрдм рджिрди-рд░ाрдд рдмрд░ाрдмрд░ рд╣ोрддे рд╣ैं। 1 рдЬрдирд╡рд░ी рд╢ीрддрдХाрд▓ीрди рд╕ंрдХ्рд░ांрддि (рджिрд╕ंрдмрд░) рдХे рдХрд░ीрдм рд╣ै, рдЗрд╕рд▓िрдП рдпрд╣ рд╕ौрд░ рдЪрдХ्рд░ рдХा рдк्рд░ाрд░ंрднिрдХ рдмिंрджु рдирд╣ीं। рд╡िрднिрди्рди рд╕ंрд╕्рдХृрддिрдпों рдоें рдирдпा рд╕ाрд▓ рд╡िрд╖ुрд╡ рдпा рд╕ंрдХ्рд░ांрддि рд╕े рдордиाрдпा рдЬाрддा рд╣ै।

рд╡ाрдХ (speech / рдз्рд╡рдиि) рдХे рдЪाрд░ рд╕्рддрд░

рдкрд░ा, рдкрд╢्рдпрди्рддी, рдордз्рдпрдоा рдФрд░ рд╡ैрдЦрд░ी

рдкрд░ा, рдкрд╢्рдпрди्рддी, рдордз्рдпрдоा рдФрд░ рд╡ैрдЦрд░ी – рд╡ाрдХ (speech / рдз्рд╡рдиि) рдХे рдЪाрд░ рд╕्рддрд░ рдоाрдиे рдЧрдП рд╣ैं, рдЬो рд╕ूрдХ्рд╖्рдо рд╕े рд╕्рдеूрд▓ рдХी рдУрд░ рдпाрдд्рд░ा рдХो рджिрдЦाрддे рд╣ैं।


рд╡ाрдгी рдХे рдЪाрд░ рд╕्рддрд░

рдкрд░ा рд╡ाрдгी 

  - рдпрд╣ рд╡ाрдгी рдХा рд╕рдмрд╕े рд╕ूрдХ्рд╖्рдо, рдоूрд▓ рдХाрд░рдг рд░ूрдк рд╣ै, рдЬрд╣ाँ рдХेрд╡рд▓ рд╢ुрдж्рдз рдЪेрддрдиा рдФрд░ рдЗрдЪ्рдЫा рд░рд╣рддी рд╣ै, рдЕрднी рдХोрдИ рд╕्рдкрд╖्рдЯ рд╡िрдЪाрд░ рдпा рд╢рдм्рдж рдирд╣ीं рдмрдирддे।

  - рдЗрд╕े рдЕрд╡्рдпрдХ्рдд, рдЕрд╢्рд░рд╡्рдп, рдЕрдк्рд░рдоेрдп рдХрд╣ा рдЧрдпा рд╣ै; рдпрд╣ рдм्рд░рд╣्рдо / рдкрд░рдордЪैрддрди्рдп рд╕े рдЬुрдб़ा рд╕्рддрд░ рдоाрдиा рдЬाрддा рд╣ै।


- рдкрд╢्рдпрди्рддी рд╡ाрдгी  

  - рдкрд╢्рдпрди्рддी рдХा рдЕрд░्рде рд╣ै “рджेрдЦी рдЬाрдиे рд╡ाрд▓ी рд╡ाрдгी”; рдпрд╣ाँ рд╡िрдЪाрд░ рд╢рдм्рдж рдирд╣ीं рдмрдирддे рдкрд░ рдЪिрдд्рд░ рдпा рдЕрдиुрднूрддि рдХे рд░ूрдк рдоें рд╕्рдкрд╖्рдЯ рд╣ोрдиे рд▓рдЧрддे рд╣ैं।

  - рдпрд╣ рдХाрд░рдг / рд╕ूрдХ्рд╖्рдо рд╢рд░ीрд░ рдХे рд╕्рддрд░ рдкрд░ рд╣ोрддी рд╣ै, рдЬрд╣ाँ рдЛрд╖ि рдпा рдпोрдЧी рд╕рдд्рдп рдХो “рджेрдЦ” рд▓ेрддे рд╣ैं, рдоाрдиो рдЬ्рдЮाрди рджрд░्рд╢рди рдХे рд░ूрдк рдоें рдк्рд░рдХрдЯ рд╣ो рд░рд╣ा рд╣ो।


- рдордз्рдпрдоा рд╡ाрдгी 

  - рдпрд╣ рдорди/рдмुрдж्рдзि рдоें рдЪрд▓рдиे рд╡ाрд▓ी рдоाрдирд╕िрдХ рд╡ाрдгी рд╣ै – рд╕्рдкрд╖्рдЯ рд╡िрдЪाрд░, рд╡ाрдХ्рдп, рддрд░्рдХ рдмрди рд░рд╣े рд╣ोрддे рд╣ैं, рдкрд░ рдЕрднी рдмाрд╣рд░ рдЖрд╡ाрдЬ़ рдХे рд░ूрдк рдоें рдк्рд░рдХрдЯ рдирд╣ीं рд╣ुрдП।

  - рдЗрд╕े рд╕ूрдХ्рд╖्рдо (рд╕ुрдХ़्рд╖्рдо) рд╕्рддрд░ рдХी рдз्рд╡рдиि рдХрд╣ा рдЬाрддा рд╣ै; рдЬैрд╕े рдорди рдоें рдЪुрдкрдЪाрдк рдмोрд▓рдиा, рдпोрдЬрдиा рдмрдиाрдиा, рддрд░्рдХ рдХрд░рдиा рдЖрджि।


- рд╡ैрдЦрд░ी рд╡ाрдгी

  - рдпрд╣ рд╕्рдеूрд▓, рдмोрд▓ी рд╣ुрдИ рд╡ाрдгी рд╣ै – рдЬрдм рд╡िрдЪाрд░ рдЧрд▓े, рдЬिрд╣्рд╡ा, рд╣ोंрда рдЖрджि рдХे рдоाрдз्рдпрдо рд╕े рдз्рд╡рдиि рдмрдирдХрд░ рдмाрд╣рд░ рдЖрддे рд╣ैं।

  - рдпрд╣ рд╣рдоाрд░े рд╕ाрдоाрди्рдп рдмोрд▓рдЪाрд▓, рдоंрдд्рд░ोрдЪ्рдЪाрд░, рдХीрд░्рддрди рдЖрджि рдХा рд╕्рддрд░ рд╣ै; рдЪाрд░ों рдоें рд╕рдмрд╕े рд╕्рдеूрд▓ рдФрд░ рд╕ीрдоिрдд рд░ूрдк।


рдЪेрддрдиा рдХी рдЕрд╡рд╕्рдеाрдПँ рдФрд░ рд╡ाрдгी

рдХुрдЫ рд╡ैрджिрдХ/рдпोрдЧिрдХ рдкрд░ंрдкрд░ाрдПँ рдЗрди рдЪाрд░ों рдХो рдЪेрддрдиा рдХी рдЕрд╡рд╕्рдеाрдУं рд╕े рднी рдЬोрдб़рддी рд╣ैं।


- рдкрд░ा – рддुрд░िрдпा / рдкрд░рдо рдЪैрддрди्рдп  

- рдкрд╢्рдпрди्рддी – рд╕ूрдХ्рд╖्рдо, рдХाрд░рдг рд╕्рддрд░ рдХी рдЪेрддрдиा  

- рдордз्рдпрдоा – рдорди / рд╕्рд╡рдк्рди рдпा рдоाрдирд╕िрдХ рд╕्рддрд░ рдХी рдЪेрддрдиा  

- рд╡ैрдЦрд░ी – рдЬाрдЧ्рд░рдд, рд╕्рдеूрд▓ рджेрд╣ рд╡ рд╕ंрд╕ाрд░ рдХे рд╕ाрде рд╡्рдпрд╡рд╣ाрд░ рдХी рдЪेрддрдиा


рд╕ाрдзрдиा рдоें рдорд╣рдд्рд╡

- рдоंрдд्рд░-рд╕ाрдзрдиा рдоें рдХрд╣ा рдЬाрддा рд╣ै рдХि рдоंрдд्рд░ рдХा рд╡ाрд╕्рддрд╡िрдХ рдк्рд░рднाрд╡ рддрдм рдЧрд╣рд░ा рд╣ोрддा рд╣ै рдЬрдм рд╕ाрдзрдХ рд╡ैрдЦрд░ी рд╕े рд╕ूрдХ्рд╖्рдорддрд░ рд╕्рддрд░ों (рдордз्рдпрдоा, рдкрд╢्рдпрди्рддी, рдкрд░ा) рддрдХ рдЙрддрд░рдХрд░ рдЬрдк рдХрд░ рдкाрдП।

- рдЖंрддрд░िрдХ рд╢ुрдж्рдзि, рдПрдХाрдЧ्рд░рддा рдФрд░ рд╕рдоाрдзि рдХे рд╕ाрде рд╡ाрдгी “рднीрддрд░” рдЦिंрдЪрддी рд╣ै – рдмाрд╣рд░ी рд╡ैрдЦрд░ी рд╕े рдЕंрддрддः рдкрд░ा рдХी рдиिःрд╢рдм्рдж, рдЕрдЦंрдб рдЪेрддрдиा рддрдХ।


рдпрджि рдЪाрд╣ें рддो рдЕрдЧрд▓ा рдЪрд░рдг рдпрд╣ рд▓े рд╕рдХрддे рд╣ैं рдХि рдЗрди рдЪाрд░ों рдХो рдоंрдд्рд░-рдЬрдк, рдк्рд░ाрд░्рдердиा рдпा рдз्рдпाрди рдХे рд╡्рдпाрд╡рд╣ाрд░िрдХ рдЕрдн्рдпाрд╕ рд╕े рдХैрд╕े рдЬोрдб़ा рдЬाрдП, рд╕рд░рд▓ рдЙрджाрд╣рд░рдгों рдХे рд╕ाрде।


рдк्рд░рдд्рдпेрдХ рд╕्рддрд░ рдХा рд╡ैрджिрдХ рд╕ंрджрд░्рдн рдФрд░ рдЙрдж्рдзрд░рдг

рд╡ाрдХ् рдХे рдЪाрд░ рд╕्рддрд░ों—рдкрд░ा, рдкрд╢्рдпрди्рддी, рдордз्рдпрдоा рдФрд░ рд╡ैрдЦрд░ी—рдХा рдЙрд▓्рд▓ेрдЦ рдоुрдЦ्рдп рд░ूрдк рд╕े рдЛрдЧ्рд╡ेрдж рдоें рдоिрд▓рддा рд╣ै, рдЬрд╣ाँ рдЗрди्рд╣ें рдЪाрд░ рдкрджों рд╡ाрд▓ी рд╡ाрдХ् рдХрд╣ा рдЧрдпा рд╣ै। рд╕ाрдпрдгाрдЪाрд░्рдп рдХे рднाрд╖्рдп рдоें рдЗрди рдиाрдоों рдХा рд╕्рдкрд╖्рдЯ рдЙрд▓्рд▓ेрдЦ рд╣ै।


рдоुрдЦ्рдп рд╡ैрджिрдХ рд╕ंрджрд░्рдн

рдЛрдЧ्рд╡ेрдж (1.164.45) рдХा рдоूрд▓ рдоंрдд्рд░ рд╡ाрдХ् рдХे рдЪाрд░ рд░ूрдкों рдХा рдк्рд░ाрдердоिрдХ рдк्рд░рдоाрдг рд╣ै:  

рдЪрдд्рд╡ाрд░ि рд╡ाрдХ् рдкрд░िрдоिрддा рдкрджाрдиि рддाрдиि рд╡िрджुрд░् рдм्рд░ाрд╣्рдордгा рдпे рдордиिрд╢िрдгः।  

рдЧूрд╣ा рдд्рд░ीрдгि рдиिрд╣िрдд рдиेрдЩ्рдЧрдпрди्рддि рддुрд░ीрдпं рд╡ाрдЪो рдордиुрд╖्рдпाрд╕्рддрдж् рд╡рджрди्рддि॥

рдЕрд░्рде: рд╡िрдж्рд╡ाрди् рдм्рд░ाрд╣्рдордг рдЪाрд░ рдкрд░िрдоिрдд рдкрджों рд╡ाрд▓ी рд╡ाрдХ् рдЬाрдирддे рд╣ैं। рддीрди рдЧुрдк्рдд рд░рд╣рддी рд╣ैं, рдЪौрдеी рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдмोрд▓рддे рд╣ैं।


рдкрд░ा рд╡ाрдгी рдХे рд╕ंрджрд░्рдн

- рдЛрдЧ्рд╡ेрдж рдХे рдЙрдХ्рдд рдоंрдд्рд░ рдоें рдкрд░ा рдХो рд╕рд░्рд╡ोрдЪ्рдЪ, рдЕрд╡्рдпрдХ्рдд рд╕्рддрд░ рдоाрдиा рдЧрдпा, рдЬो рдоूрд▓рдм्рд░рд╣्рдо рд╕े рдЬुрдб़ा рд╣ै।

- рддंрдд्рд░ рдЧ्рд░ंрдеों рдоें рдЗрд╕े рдоूрд▓ाрдзाрд░ рдЪрдХ्рд░ рд╕े рдЬुрдб़ा рдмрддाрдпा рдЧрдпा, рдЬрд╣ाँ рдХुрдг्рдбрд▓िрдиी рд░ूрдк рдоें рд╢рдХ्рддि рд╡िрдж्рдпрдоाрди рд╣ै।

- рднाрд╖्рдпрдХाрд░ рд╕ाрдпрдг рдЗрд╕े рдк्рд░рдердо рдкрдж рдХे рд░ूрдк рдоें рдкрд░िрднाрд╖िрдд рдХрд░рддे рд╣ैं।


рдкрд╢्рдпрди्рддी рд╡ाрдгी рдХे рд╕ंрджрд░्рдн

- рдЛрдЧ्рд╡ेрдж 1.164.45 рдХे рдж्рд╡िрддीрдп рдкрдж рдХे рд░ूрдк рдоें, рдЗрд╕े “рджेрдЦрдиे рд╡ाрд▓ी рд╡ाрдгी” рдХрд╣ा рдЧрдпा, рдЬो рдХाрд░рдг рд╢рд░ीрд░ рдоें рджрд░्рд╢рди рд░ूрдк рдоें рдк्рд░рдХрдЯ рд╣ोрддी рд╣ै।

- рдпोрдЧрдХुрдг्рдбрд▓्рдпुрдкрдиिрд╖рдж् (3.18-19): рдкрд░ाрдпाрдоंрдХुрд░ी рднूрдп рдкрд╢्рдпрди्рддां рдж्рд╡ीрджрд▓ीрдХृрддा – рдпрд╣ाँ рдЗрд╕े рдж्рд╡िрджрд▓ीрдп рдЕрд╡рд╕्рдеा рдХे рд░ूрдк рдоें рд╡рд░्рдгिрдд।

- рд╢्рд░ी рдЕрд░рд╡िрди्рдж рдЗрд╕े рдХाрд░рдг рд▓ोрдХ рдХी рдз्рд╡рдиि рдоाрдирддे рд╣ैं।


рдордз्рдпрдоा рд╡ाрдгी рдХे рд╕ंрджрд░्рдн

- рдЛрдЧ्рд╡ेрдж рдХे рддृрддीрдп рдкрдж рдХे рд░ूрдк рдоें, рдорди рдоें рд╡िрдЪाрд░ рд░ूрдк рдз्рд╡рдиि।

- рдпोрдЧрдХुрдг्рдбрд▓्рдпुрдкрдиिрд╖рдж् рдоें рдордз्рдпрдоाрдпां рдоुрдХुрд▓िрддा – рдоुрдХुрд▓िрдд (рдЕंрдХुрд░िрдд) рдЕрд╡рд╕्рдеा।

- рд╡ाрдХ्рдпрдкрджीрдп (рднाрд░्рддृрд╣рд░ि 1.112): рд╡ाрдХ् рд╣ी рд╡िрд╢्рд╡ рд╕ृрд╖्рдЯि рдХा рдоूрд▓, рдордз्рдпрдоा рдХो рд╕ूрдХ्рд╖्рдо рдк्рд░ाрдг рд╕्рддрд░।


рд╡ैрдЦрд░ी рд╡ाрдгी рдХे рд╕ंрджрд░्рдн

- рдЛрдЧ्рд╡ेрдж рдХे рдЪрддुрд░्рде рдкрдж – рддुрд░ीрдпं рд╡ाрдЪो рдордиुрд╖्рдпाрд╕्рддрдж् рд╡рджрди्рддि – рдоुрдЦ рд╕े рдмोрд▓ी рдЬाрдиे рд╡ाрд▓ी।

- рдпोрдЧрдХुрдг्рдбрд▓्рдпुрдкрдиिрд╖рдж्: рд╡ैрдЦрд░्рдпा рд╡िрдХрд╕ीрдХृрддा – рдкूрд░्рдг рд╡िрдХрд╕िрдд рд░ूрдк।

- рдордиुрд╕्рдоृрддि рдоें рд╡ैрдЦрд░ी рдХा рд╕ाрдоाрди्рдп рд╡ाрдгी рдХे рд░ूрдк рдоें рд╡рд░्рдгрди।

рдЖрдзुрдиिрдХ рдоाрдирд╡ рдХे рд▓िрдП рд╢्рд░ीрд░ाрдордХृрд╖्рдг–рд╡िрд╡ेрдХाрдирди्рдж рднाрд╡рдзाрд░ा рдХा рдорд╣рдд्рд╡

рдкुрд╕्рддрдХ рд╕рдоीрдХ्рд╖ा 

рдпрд╣ рдкुрд╕्рддрдХ “рдЖрдзुрдиिрдХ рдоाрдирд╡ рдХे рд▓िрдП рд╢्рд░ीрд░ाрдордХृрд╖्рдг–рд╡िрд╡ेрдХाрдирди्рдж рднाрд╡рдзाрд░ा рдХा рдорд╣рдд्рд╡” (рд▓ेрдЦрдХ: рд╕्рд╡ाрдоी рдиिрдЦिрд▓ेрд╢्рд╡рд░ाрдирди्рдж) рдЖрдзुрдиिрдХ рдЬीрд╡рди рдХी рд╕рдорд╕्рдпाрдУं рдХो рд░ाрдордХृрд╖्рдг‑рд╡िрд╡ेрдХाрдирди्рдж рдХे рд╡िрдЪाрд░ों рдХे рдоाрдз्рдпрдо рд╕े рд╕рдордЭрдиे рдФрд░ рд╣рд▓ рдЦोрдЬрдиे рдХा рдПрдХ рд╕ंрдХ्рд╖िрдк्рдд рдкрд░рди्рддु рдк्рд░рднाрд╡ी рдк्рд░рдпाрд╕ рд╣ै। рдпрд╣ рдЦाрд╕ рддौрд░ рдкрд░ рдЙрди рдкाрдардХों рдХे рд▓िрдП рдЙрдкрдпोрдЧी рд╣ै рдЬो рдЖрдз्рдпाрдд्рдоिрдХ рджृрд╖्рдЯि рд╕े рд╡्рдпाрд╡рд╣ाрд░िрдХ рдЬीрд╡рди‑рдиिрд░्рджेрд╢ рдЦोрдЬ рд░рд╣े рд╣ैं।


рд╡िрд╖рдпрд╡рд╕्рддु рдФрд░ рд╕ंрд░рдЪрдиा  

- рдкुрд╕्рддрдХ рдоें рд╢्рд░ीрд░ाрдордХृрд╖्рдг рдХे рдЖрдз्рдпाрдд्рдоिрдХ рдЕрдиुрднрд╡ों рдФрд░ рд╕्рд╡ाрдоी рд╡िрд╡ेрдХाрдирди्рдж рдХे рд░ाрд╖्рдЯ्рд░‑рдиिрд░्рдоाрдг, рд╕ेрд╡ा рдФрд░ рдЪрд░िрдд्рд░‑рдиिрд░्рдоाрдг рд╕рдо्рдмрди्рдзी рд╡िрдЪाрд░ों рдХो рд╕рд░рд▓ рд╣िंрджी рдоें рд░рдЦा рдЧрдпा рд╣ै।

- рдЕрдз्рдпाрдпों рдХा рдлोрдХрд╕ рдЖрдзुрдиिрдХ рдоाрдирд╡ рдХी рдЪुрдиौрддिрдпों—рднौрддिрдХ рджौрдб़, рдиैрддिрдХ рд╕ंрдХрдЯ, рддрдиाрд╡, рдоूрд▓्рдп‑рд╕ंрдХрдЯ—рдкрд░ рд╣ै рдФрд░ рдЙрдирдХे рд╕рдоाрдзाрди рдХे рд▓िрдП ‘рдЖрдд्рдордиो рдоोрдХ्рд╖ाрд░्рдеं рдЬрдЧрдж्рдзिрддाрдп рдЪ’ рдЬैрд╕े рдЖрджрд░्рд╢ों рдХो рд▓ाрдЧू рдХрд░рдиे рдХी рдк्рд░ेрд░рдгा рджी рдЧрдИ рд╣ै।


рднाрд╖ा рд╢ैрд▓ी рдФрд░ рдк्рд░рд╕्рддुрддि  

- рднाрд╖ा рд╕рд╣рдЬ, рдк्рд░рд╡ाрд╣рдкूрд░्рдг рдФрд░ рдк्рд░ाрдпः рдк्рд░рд╡рдЪрди рд╢ैрд▓ी рдХी рд╣ै, рдЬिрд╕рд╕े рд╕ाрдоाрди्рдп рдкाрдардХ рднी рдЧूрдв़ рдЖрдз्рдпाрдд्рдоिрдХ рд╡िрдЪाрд░ рд╕рдордЭ рдкाрддा рд╣ै।

- рд▓ेрдЦрдХ рдЕрдиेрдХ рдЙрджाрд╣рд░рдгों рдФрд░ рдк्рд░рд╕ंрдЧों рдХे рдоाрдз्рдпрдо рд╕े рдпрд╣ рджिрдЦाрддे рд╣ैं рдХि рд╡िрд╡ेрдХाрдирди्рдж рдХे рд╕ंрджेрд╢ рдЖрдЬ рдХे рдпुрд╡ाрдУं рдФрд░ рд╕рдоाрдЬ рдХे рд▓िрдП рдХिрддрдиे рдк्рд░ाрд╕ंрдЧिрдХ рд╣ैं, рдЬैрд╕े рд╕ेрд╡ा, рдЖрдд्рдорд╡िрд╢्рд╡ाрд╕, рд░ाрд╖्рдЯ्рд░рднрдХ्рддि рдФрд░ рдиिःрд╕्рд╡ाрд░्рде рдХрд░्рдо рдХी рдк्рд░ेрд░рдгा।


рдкुрд╕्рддрдХ рдХी рд╡िрд╢ेрд╖рддाрдПँ  

- рдЖрдХाрд░ рдоें рдЫोрдЯी рд╣ोрдиे рдХे рдмाрд╡рдЬूрдж рдпрд╣ рдкुрд╕्рддрдХ рд░ाрдордХृрд╖्рдг‑рд╡िрд╡ेрдХाрдирди्рдж рд╡िрдЪाрд░рдзाрд░ा рдХी рдоुрдЦ्рдп рд░ेрдЦाрдПँ—рдИрд╢्рд╡рд░ाрдиुрднूрддि, рд╕рд░्рд╡рдзрд░्рдо‑рд╕рдорди्рд╡рдп, рдоाрдирд╡‑рд╕ेрд╡ा рдФрд░ рдЪрд░िрдд्рд░‑рдиिрд░्рдоाрдг—рдХो рдЕрдЪ्рдЫे рд╕ंрдХрд▓рди рдХे рд░ूрдк рдоें рдк्рд░рд╕्рддुрдд рдХрд░рддी рд╣ै।

- рдоूрд▓्рдп рдХрдо рд╣ै рдФрд░ рдпрд╣ рд░ाрдордХृрд╖्рдг рдоिрд╢рди рдЬैрд╕े рд╕ंрд╕्рдеाрдиों рдоें рдк्рд░рд╕ाрд░ рд╣ेрддु рдЙрдкрд▓рдм्рдз рд░рд╣рддी рд╣ै, рдЗрд╕рд▓िрдП рдЫाрдд्рд░ों, рд╕ाрдзрдХों рдФрд░ рдпुрд╡ा рдкाрдардХों рдХे рд▓िрдП рдПрдХ рд╕ुрд▓рдн рдкрд░िрдЪрдпाрдд्рдордХ рдЧ्рд░рди्рде рдмрди рдЬाрддी рд╣ै।


рдХрдоिрдпाँ рдпा рд╕ीрдоाрдПँ  

- рдЬो рдкाрдардХ рдкрд╣рд▓े рд╕े рд╡िрд╡ेрдХाрдирди्рдж рд╕ाрд╣िрдд्рдп рдЕрдерд╡ा рдЧрд╣рди рджрд░्рд╢рди рдкрдв़ рдЪुрдХे рд╣ैं, рдЙрди्рд╣ें рдпрд╣ рдкुрд╕्рддрдХ рдХुрдЫ рд╣рдж рддрдХ рдкुрдирд░ाрд╡ृрдд्рдд рдФрд░ рдк्рд░рд╕्рддाрд╡рдиा‑рд╕्рддрд░ рдХी рд▓рдЧ рд╕рдХрддी рд╣ै, рдХ्рдпोंрдХि рдЗрд╕рдоें рд╡िрд╕्рддाрд░ рд╕े рд╡िрд╢्рд▓ेрд╖рдг рдХी рдмрдЬाрдп рд╕ंрдХ्рд╖िрдк्рдд рд╕ंрдХेрдд рдЕрдзिрдХ рд╣ैं।

- рд╕ंрджрд░्рдн, рдЙрдж्рдзрд░рдг рдФрд░ рд╢ैрдХ्рд╖рдгिрдХ рдлुрдЯрдиोрдЯ рд╕ीрдоिрдд рд╣ैं, рдЗрд╕рд▓िрдП рд╢ोрдз‑рдЙрдж्рджेрд╢्рдп рд╕े рдкрдв़рдиे рд╡ाрд▓े рд╡िрдж्рд╡ाрдиों рдХे рд▓िрдП рдпрд╣ рдк्рд░ाрдердоिрдХ рд╕्рд░ोрдд рдХी рдмрдЬाрдп рдк्рд░ेрд░рдгाрдд्рдордХ рдж्рд╡िрддीрдпрдХ рд╕ाрд╣िрдд्рдп рдХी рддрд░рд╣ рд╣ै।


рдиिрд╖्рдХрд░्рд╖  

- рдпрджि рдЙрдж्рджेрд╢्рдп рдЕрдкрдиे рдЬीрд╡рди, рд╡िрд╢ेрд╖рдХрд░ рдпुрд╡ा рдЕрд╡рд╕्рдеा рдФрд░ рдЖрдзुрдиिрдХ рднाрдЧрджौрдб़ рднрд░े рдоाрд╣ौрд▓ рдоें, рд░ाрдордХृрд╖्рдг‑рд╡िрд╡ेрдХाрдирди्рдж рдХी рд╢िрдХ्рд╖ाрдУं рдХो рд╕рдордЭрдХрд░ рдЙрди्рд╣ें рд╡्рдпрд╡рд╣ाрд░ рдоें рдЙрддाрд░рдиे рдХी рдк्рд░ेрд░рдгा рд▓ेрдиा рд╣ै рддो рдпрд╣ рдкुрд╕्рддрдХ рдЕрд╡рд╢्рдп рдкрдардиीрдп рд╣ै।

- рдЬिрди्рд╣ोंрдиे рдЗрд╕े рдкूрд░ा рдкрдв़ рд▓िрдпा рд╣ै, рдЖрдЧे рдХे рдЪрд░рдг рдоें рд╡िрд╡ेрдХाрдирди्рдж рдХे рдоूрд▓ рднाрд╖рдгों рдФрд░ рд░ाрдордХृрд╖्рдг‑рд╡िрд╡рд░рдгों (рдЬैрд╕े “рдЧॉрд╕्рдкेрд▓ рдСрдл рд╢्рд░ीрд░ाрдордХृрд╖्рдг”, рд╡िрд╡ेрдХाрдирди्рдж рдХे рд╕ंрдкूрд░्рдг рдХाрд░्рдп) рдХी рдУрд░ рдмрдв़ें рддो рд╡िрдЪाрд░рдзाрд░ा рдФрд░ рднी рдЧрд╣рд░ाрдИ рд╕े рд╕्рдкрд╖्рдЯ рд╣ोрдЧी।

рдкुрд╕्рддрдХ рдЦрд░ीрджрдиे рдХे рд▓िрдП рджेрдЦें-

Tuesday, December 30, 2025

рез рдИрд╕्рд╡ी рдоें рд╡िрд╢्рд╡

рез рдИрд╕्рд╡ी (1 AD / 1 CE) рд╡рд╣ рд╡рд░्рд╖ рдоाрдиा рдЬाрддा рд╣ै, рдЬрд╣ाँ рдкाрд░ंрдкрд░िрдХ рдИрд╕ाрдИ рдХाрд▓рдЧрдгрдиा рдоें “рдИрд╕ा рдкूрд░्рд╡ (BC)” рдХी рдЕрд╡рдзि рд╕рдоाрдк्рдд рд╣ोрдХрд░ “рдИрд╕्рд╡ी (AD)” рдХाрд▓ рд╢ुрд░ू рд╣ोрддा рд╣ै। рдпрд╣ рдХाрд▓рдЧрдгрдиा рд░ोрдо‑рдХेंрдж्рд░िрдд рдИрд╕ाрдИ рджुрдиिрдпा рдж्рд╡ाрд░ा рдзीрд░े‑рдзीрд░े рдордз्рдпрдпुрдЧ рдоें рдЕрдкрдиाрдИ рдЧрдИ, рдЬрдмрдХि рд╕рдордХाрд▓ीрди рд╕рдн्рдпрддाрдПँ рдЙрд╕ рд╕рдордп рдЕрдкрдиी‑рдЕрдкрдиी рдЕрд▓рдЧ рддिрдеिрдкрдж्рдзрддिрдпाँ рдоाрдирддी рдеीं।


рез рдИрд╕्рд╡ी рдХी рд╕рдордп–рд░ेрдЦा рдХा рдЕрд░्рде

- рдИрд╕ाрдИ рдкрд░ंрдкрд░ा рдХे рдЕрдиुрд╕ाрд░ рдИрд╕ा рдорд╕ीрд╣ рдХे рдЬрди्рдо рдХे рдмाрдж рдХे рд╡рд░्рд╖ों рдХो рдИрд╕्рд╡ी рдпा AD (Anno Domini) рдХрд╣ा рдЬाрддा рд╣ै, рдФрд░ рдЙрдирд╕े рдкрд╣рд▓े рдХे рд╡рд░्рд╖ों рдХो рдИрд╕ा рдкूрд░्рд╡ рдпा BC (Before Christ)।

- рдкрд░ंрдкрд░ाрдЧрдд рд░ूрдк рд╕े рдЬिрд╕ рд╡рд░्рд╖ рдХो рдИрд╕ा рдХा рдЬрди्рдорд╡рд░्рд╖ рдоाрдиा рдЧрдпा, рдЙрд╕рдХे рдаीрдХ рдмाрдж рд╡ाрд▓ा рд╡рд░्рд╖ 1 AD рдФрд░ рдЙрд╕рдХे рдаीрдХ рдкрд╣рд▓े рд╡ाрд▓ा рд╡рд░्рд╖ 1 BC рдХрд╣рд▓ाрддा рд╣ै, рдмीрдЪ рдоें “0 рд╡рд░्рд╖” рдирд╣ीं рд╣ोрддा।


рд░ोрдорди–рдпूрд░ोрдкीрдп рдкрд░िрджृрд╢्рдп

- рез рдИрд╕्рд╡ी рдХे рдЖрд╕рдкाрд╕ рднूрдордз्рдпрд╕ाрдЧрд░ीрдп рдХ्рд╖ेрдд्рд░ рдоें рд░ोрдорди рд╕ाрдо्рд░ाрдЬ्рдп рд╕рдмрд╕े рд╢рдХ्рддिрд╢ाрд▓ी рд░ाрдЬрдиीрддिрдХ рдЗрдХाрдИ рдеा; рд░ाрдЬрдзाрдиी рд░ोрдо рдеी рдФрд░ рд╕рдо्рд░ाрдЯों рдХा рдпुрдЧ рдЪрд▓ рд░рд╣ा рдеा।

- рд░ोрдорди рдХैрд▓ेंрдбрд░ рдЬूрд▓िрдпрд╕ рд╕ीрдЬ़рд░ рдж्рд╡ाрд░ा рд╕ुрдзाрд░ рдХे рдмाрдж рдЗрд╕्рддेрдоाрд▓ рд╣ो рд░рд╣ा рдеा, рдЬो рдмाрдж рдоें рдЧ्рд░ेрдЧोрд░िрдпрди рдХैрд▓ेंрдбрд░ рдХी рдЖрдзाрд░рд╢िрд▓ा рдмрдиा рдФрд░ рдЙрд╕ी рд╕े рдЖрдЬ рдХा “1 рдИрд╕्рд╡ी” рднी рдЬुрдб़ा рд╣ै।


рднाрд░рдд рдФрд░ рдПрд╢िрдпा

- рднाрд░рдд рдоें рдЗрд╕ рд╕рдордп рд╢рдХों рд╕े рдкрд╣рд▓े рдХे рдЙрдд्рддрд░–рдоौрд░्рдп/рд╢ुंрдЧ–рдХाрди्рд╡ рд╡ рд╕्рдеाрдиीрдп рд░ाрдЬрд╡ंрд╢, рдФрд░ рджрдХ्рд╖िрдг рд╡ рдкрд╢्рдЪिрдо рдоें рдХрдИ рдХ्рд╖ुрдж्рд░ рд░ाрдЬрддंрдд्рд░ рд╕рдХ्рд░िрдп рдеे; рдпрд╣ाँ “рдИрд╕्рд╡ी” рдиाрдо рдХी рддिрдеि рдк्рд░рдгाрд▓ी рдирд╣ीं, рдмрд▓्рдХि рдЕрдкрдиे рд░ाрдЬрд╡ंрд╢ी рд╡ рд╕्рдеाрдиीрдп рдкंрдЪांрдЧ рдк्рд░рдЪрд▓िрдд рдеे।

- рднाрд░рддीрдп рдкрд░ंрдкрд░ा рдоें рдЙрд╕ рдпुрдЧ рдХो рдмाрдж рдоें рд╡िрдХ्рд░рдо рд╕ंрд╡рдд, рд╢рдХ рд╕ंрд╡рдд рдЖрджि рдХे рд╕ंрджрд░्рдн рд╕े рдЬोрдб़ा рдЧрдпा, рдЬो рдЧ्рд░ेрдЧोрд░िрдпрди “1 CE” рд╕े рдЕрд▓рдЧ рдк्рд░ाрд░ंрдн рдмिंрджु рд░рдЦрддे рд╣ैं।


рдордз्рдп рдкूрд░्рд╡ рдФрд░ рдЕрди्рдп рд╕рдн्рдпрддाрдПँ

- рдкрд╢्рдЪिрдоी рдПрд╢िрдпा (рдордз्рдп–рдкूрд░्рд╡) рдХ्рд╖ेрдд्рд░ рдоें рд░ोрдорди, рдкाрд░्рдеिрдпрди (рдИрд░ाрдиी рдХ्рд╖ेрдд्рд░) рдФрд░ рд╕्рдеाрдиीрдп рд░ाрдЬрд╢ाрд╣िрдпों рдХे рдмीрдЪ рд╢рдХ्рддि–рд╕ंрддुрд▓рди рдмрдиा рд╣ुрдЖ рдеा; рдпрд╣ рдХ्рд╖ेрдд्рд░ рд╡्рдпाрдкाрд░ рдФрд░ рд╕ंрд╕्рдХृрддि рдХा рдмрдб़ा рдХेंрдж्рд░ рдеा।

- рдЪीрди рдоें рдЗрд╕ рд╕рдордп рд╣ाрди рд░ाрдЬрд╡ंрд╢ рдХा рдХाрд▓ рдеा, рдЬो рдк्рд░рд╢ाрд╕рди, рд▓ेрдЦрди рдФрд░ рдХाрдЧрдЬ़ рдЬैрд╕ी рддрдХрдиीрдХों рдХे рд╡िрдХाрд╕ рдХे рд▓िрдП рдорд╣рдд्рд╡рдкूрд░्рдг рдоाрдиा рдЬाрддा рд╣ै; рд╡рд╣ाँ рднी рдЕрдкрдиी рд╕рдо्рд░ाрдЯ‑рдЖрдзाрд░िрдд рддिрдеि рдк्рд░рдгाрд▓ी рдЪрд▓рддी рдеी, рди рдХि рдИрд╕्рд╡ी।


“1 рдИрд╕्рд╡ी” рдХो рдмाрдж рдоें рддрдп рдХिрдпा рдЧрдпा

- 1 AD / 1 CE рдЬैрд╕ी рд╡рд░्рд╖–рд╕ंрдЦ्рдпा рдЙрд╕ рд╕рдордп рдХिрд╕ी рднी рд╕рдоाрдЬ рдоें рддрдд्рдХाрд▓िрдХ рд░ूрдк рд╕े рдЙрдкрдпोрдЧ рдирд╣ीं рд╣ोрддी рдеी; рдЗрд╕े рдХрдИ рд╢рддाрдм्рджिрдпों рдмाрдж рдИрд╕ाрдИ рд╡िрдж्рд╡ाрдиों рдиे рдИрд╕ा рдХे рдЬрди्рдо рд╡рд░्рд╖ рдХी рдЧрдгрдиा рдХे рдЖрдзाрд░ рдкрд░ рдкрд░िрднाрд╖िрдд рдХिрдпा।

- 6рд╡ीं–10рд╡ीं рд╕рджी рддрдХ рдпрд╣ рдк्рд░рдгाрд▓ी рдпूрд░ोрдк рдХे рдЕрдзिрдХांрд╢ рдИрд╕ाрдИ рджेрд╢ों рдоें рдЬрдб़ рдкрдХрдб़ рдЪुрдХी рдеी, рдФрд░ рдЖрдЧे рдЪрд▓рдХрд░ рдЧ्рд░ेрдЧोрд░िрдпрди рдХैрд▓ेंрдбрд░ рдХे рдоाрдз्рдпрдо рд╕े рд╡ैрд╢्рд╡िрдХ рдоाрдирдХ рддिрдеि рдк्рд░рдгाрд▓ी рдмрди рдЧрдИ।


Thursday, December 25, 2025

What Should be an Ideal Evening Rituals

 

An ideal night ritual promotes better sleep by signaling your body to wind down, especially fitting your 10-11 PM bedtime and sedentary lifestyle. These routines draw from sleep science and can incorporate simple Indian habits like light herbal drinks. Consistency enhances benefits like reduced stress and improved energy.

Core Principles

Maintain a fixed bedtime around 10 PM to align your circadian rhythm, even on weekends. Start winding down 1-2 hours earlier by dimming lights and avoiding screens to boost melatonin. Keep the routine 30-90 minutes of calming activities tailored to your preferences.

Recommended Steps

Light dinner by 7-8 PM: Opt for familiar rice, dal, and sabji but smaller portions to aid digestion; avoid heavy or late meals.

Screen-free zone (9 PM onward): No phones or TV to prevent blue light disruption.

Warm bath or shower: Mimics body temperature drop for relaxation; add Epsom salt if available.

Gentle movement: 5-10 minutes of stretching or yoga to release tension from sitting work.

Mind dump journaling: Note tomorrow's tasks or spiritual reflections to clear racing thoughts.

Relaxation Techniques

Practice 4-7-8 breathing (inhale 4, hold 7, exhale 8) for nervous system calm. Read a physical book on history or spirituality, or sip warm milk/herbal tea (no caffeine post-noon). End with 5 minutes of silence or meditation for deeper rest.

Bedroom Setup

Cool, dark room (18-22°C suits Haryana winters) reserved for sleep only. Use breathable cotton sheets; place a notepad bedside for stray thoughts. Aim for 7-8 hours to match your 7 AM wake-up .

Why Vomiting during Travel

Vomiting during travel usually happens because of motion sickness, when the brain gets confused by mixed signals about movement from the eyes and inner ear.


What happens in the body


- The inner ear (balance organ) feels motion (turning, speed, bumps), while the eyes or body position may signal that you are “still”, or vice versa (for example, reading in a moving bus).

- This conflict between what the eyes see and what the vestibular system and body feel triggers a response in the brain areas that control nausea and vomiting.

- The body reacts with symptoms like nausea, sweating, dizziness, and sometimes vomiting, which can become worse with anxiety, strong smells, heat, or poor ventilation.


Why some people get it more

- People with a naturally sensitive inner ear, history of migraine, or certain balance disorders (like M├йni├иre’s disease) tend to have more motion sickness.

- Children, younger adults, and those who read or use mobile phones in vehicles often experience symptoms more than others.

- Lack of fresh air, sitting at the back of a bus/car, facing backward in trains, and highly jerky driving all increase the mismatch of signals and raise the risk of vomiting.


Simple ways to reduce vomiting

- Sit where movement is least: front seat of car, near the middle of a bus, over the wing in a plane, or mid-ship on a boat, and face forward.

- Look at the stable horizon or road ahead, avoid reading/phone, keep windows slightly open or use fan/AC, and avoid heavy, oily meals, alcohol, and strong smells before and during travel.

- Close eyes and rest or lie back if possible; slow, repeated exposure (short trips that gradually increase) can help the brain adapt and reduce future episodes.


Medicines that can help

- Preventive medicines like scopolamine patches and older (first‑generation) antihistamines such as dimenhydrinate, meclizine, or cinnarizine can reduce nausea and vomiting if taken before travel, but often cause drowsiness.

- Evidence suggests these medicines are generally more effective than placebo for preventing motion sickness, but they should be used under medical advice, especially if you have other illnesses or take regular drugs.


If you personally vomit often while travelling (bus, car, or train), describe which vehicle, where you sit, and what you usually eat before travel, and the answer can be adapted step‑by‑step for your situation.


What should I do after vomiting

After vomiting from travel-related motion sickness, rest and rehydrate slowly to recover and prevent dehydration. Avoid eating right away and watch for worsening symptoms.


Immediate Steps

Lie down in a cool, quiet place to calm your stomach and reduce dizziness. Sip small amounts of clear fluids like room-temperature water or oral rehydration solution (ORS) every 5-10 minutes—start with 1-2 teaspoons to test tolerance.

Suck on ice chips if swallowing liquids feels hard, and use ginger tea or peppermint once nausea eases, as they soothe the stomach.


Reintroduce Food

Wait 30-60 minutes until nausea passes, then try bland foods like plain rice, banana, toast, or poha (which fits your usual diet) in small portions.

Eat frequently but lightly—your rice-dal-sabji routine can resume gradually once stable, avoiding oily, spicy, or heavy meals for 24 hours.


Watch for Dehydration

Check for dry mouth, dark urine, dizziness on standing, or reduced urination, common after vomiting with your sedentary lifestyle and 52kg weight.

Homemade ORS (1 liter water + 6 tsp sugar + 1/2 tsp salt) works well if commercial ones like Electral aren't available in Narnaund.


When to Get Help

Seek a doctor if vomiting lasts over 24-48 hours, you can't keep fluids down, see blood/coffee-grounds in vomit, or have severe pain/fever.

For your pilgrimage travel plans, carry ORS packets and anti-nausea meds like meclizine ahead.

Wednesday, December 24, 2025

Addressing Africa's poverty

Addressing Africa's poverty, which affects around 464 million people, requires multifaceted strategies focusing on education, agriculture, and economic inclusion rather than aid alone.[1][2] Proven approaches emphasize local empowerment, skills building, and structural reforms to boost incomes sustainably.[3][4]


Education and Skills

Prioritize foundational learning, vocational training, and digital skills to equip youth for jobs, potentially lifting 40-60 million out of poverty by 2030.[1] Programs like Kenya's Smart Duka have increased small business revenues by 30% through training and finance access.[3] Keeping girls in school and linking education to local economic needs accelerates workforce productivity.[1][5]


Agriculture and Food Security

Boost smallholder productivity via regenerative farming, better seeds, irrigation, and market links to raise rural incomes and ensure food access.[3][6] Eliminating input subsidies and redirecting funds to poor households via cash transfers supports an African green revolution.[4] Community gardens and women's empowerment in agriculture yield ripple effects on family nutrition and poverty reduction.[5][7]


Economic Inclusion

Empower entrepreneurs with microfinance, business training, and market access, as seen in Village Enterprise's high-return programs yielding $5.34 benefits per $1 invested.[8][3] Invest in infrastructure, public works, and social protection like grants to bridge urban-rural gaps and support vulnerable groups.[5][9] Regional trade and stable policies foster job creation without over-relying on external aid.[9][10]


Citations:

[1] To reduce poverty in Africa the focus must be on education ... https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/africacan/to-reduce-poverty-in-africa-the-focus-must-be-on-education-and-skills-afe-1124

[2] Poverty in Africa: Causes, Effects, and Community-Led ... https://outreach-international.org/blog/poverty-in-africa/

[3] 5 Effective Strategies to Address Global Poverty https://www.technoserve.org/blog/5-strategies-address-global-poverty/

[4] Assessing past and future strategies for reducing poverty in Africa https://www.brookings.edu/articles/assessing-past-and-future-strategies-for-reducing-poverty-in-africa/

[5] Eight policies that would help fight poverty in South Africa's ... https://www.unsw.edu.au/newsroom/news/2025/07/eight-policies-would-help-fight-poverty-in-south-africa-economic-hub-gauteng

[6] Accelerating Poverty Reduction in Africa: In Five Charts - World Bank https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/afr/publication/accelerating-poverty-reduction-in-africa-in-five-charts

[7] 5 Ways to Reduce Hunger/Poverty in Africa [Best Solutions]sapa-usa.org › ways-to-reduce-hunger-in-africa https://sapa-usa.org/ways-to-reduce-hunger-in-africa/

[8] Village Enterprise — Ending extreme poverty in rural Africa. https://villageenterprise.org

[9] Eliminating extreme poverty in Africa: The role of policies and global ... https://www.theigc.org/blogs/progress-poverty-eradication/eliminating-extreme-poverty-africa-role-policies-and-global

[10] Addressing Poverty in Africa(Book Series https://internationalpolicybrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Addressing-Poverty-in-Africa-2nd-Edition.pdf

[11] The Role of The United Nations in Poverty Eradication in ... https://ijhssm.org/issue_dcp/The%20Role%20of%20The%20United%20Nations%20in%20Poverty%20Eradication%20in%20West%20Africa.pdf

[12] Full article: Poverty alleviation programs in Nigeria: a study on World ... https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311886.2024.2361527

[13] [PDF] Public Policy Strategies for Poverty Alleviation in Sub-Saharan Africa https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/121728/1/MPRA_paper_121728.pdf

[14] [PDF] Anti-poverty policies focusing on families: Regional Overview https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/family/docs/egm11/ZithaMokomanepaper.pdf

[15] 3 Ways to Reduce Poverty in Africa https://renewcapital.com/newsroom/3-ways-to-reduce-poverty-in-africa

[16] Broadening opportunities offers the best hope to end poverty in Africa https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/africacan/broadening-opportunities-offers-the-best-hope-to-end-poverty-in-africa-afw-afe-1224

[17] Leveling the playing field in Africa - World Bank https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/afr/publication/leveling-the-playing-field

[18] [PDF] poverty alleviation | comcec https://www.comcec.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/29FC-D20-POVERTY-ALLEVIA.BRIEF-eng.pdf

[19] [PDF] Structural adjustment and poverty reduction in Africa https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/gurn/00111.pdf

[20] How Africa Can End Poverty. Here are Three Ways. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-africa-can-end-poverty-here-three-ways-tom-osborn

Sunday, December 21, 2025

The Historical Roots of Terrorism

How terrorism begins in the world, philosophy and psychology of terrorism


For illustration purpose only

Terrorism emerged as a tactic in ancient times, with early examples like the 1st-century Sicarii Zealots who assassinated Roman collaborators in Judea to instill fear, though the modern term originated during the French Revolution's Reign of Terror in 1793-1794, when Jacobins used mass executions to enforce obedience.[1][2] Groups like the 11th-century Hashshashin and 19th-century Fenian Brotherhood advanced tactics such as targeted killings and dynamite campaigns to achieve political ends.[3][1]


Historical Origins

Roots trace to religious and nationalist zealots resisting occupation, such as the Sicarii poisoning wells and assassinating foes in ancient Judea.[4][1] Modern terrorism evolved in the 19th century with organizations like the Irish Republican Brotherhood's 1881 dynamite campaign in Britain, marking a shift to explosives for widespread fear rather than just assassination.[3] Waves of terrorism, as theorized by scholars like Rapoport, progressed from anarchist bombings to religious "holy terror" by groups like al-Qaeda.[5][1]


Philosophical Underpinnings

Terrorism involves calculated violence to spread fear and coerce political change, often justified by perpetrators as a moral imperative against perceived evils like oppression.[2][6] Religious terrorists view indiscriminate killing as a divine duty, transcending political goals, while secular variants aim for instrumental gains like policy shifts.[3][7] Critics argue it lacks moral justification due to targeting innocents, fueled instead by nationalism, resentment, and illusions of victimhood.[8]


Psychological Drivers

Most terrorists lack clinical mental illness, as groups screen for stability, but many harbor low self-esteem, humiliation, hopelessness, and revenge needs from trauma.[9][10][11] Radicalization exploits quests for identity, significance, and belonging, with organizations framing rhetoric around persecution to recruit.[9][7] Aggression blends emotional rage with strategic planning to impose long-term costs on enemies.


Historical roots of terrorism by era


Terrorism's roots span ancient assassinations to modern ideological campaigns, evolving with political contexts and technologies. Scholars often divide its history into eras or "waves," starting from proto-terrorist acts in antiquity. Key developments reflect shifts from religious zealotry to nationalist and ideological violence.


Ancient Era (1st Century AD)

Jewish Sicarii Zealots in Roman-occupied Judea used daggers for stealth assassinations of collaborators, aiming to spark rebellion through fear.[1] These acts targeted public figures to demoralize occupiers and intimidate locals.


Medieval Era (11th Century)

The Hashshashin (Assassins), an Ismaili Muslim sect in Persia and Syria, conducted targeted killings of political and religious leaders using suicide missions.[1][3] Their tactic influenced later groups by blending religious fanaticism with psychological terror.


Revolutionary Era (Late 18th Century)

The French Revolution's Reign of Terror (1793-1794) marked the term's origin, as Jacobins executed thousands via guillotine to enforce state loyalty and crush dissent. This state-sponsored violence set a precedent for using mass fear politically.


Anarchist Wave (1880s-1920s)

Anarchists like Narodnaya Volya assassinated leaders across Europe and the US, promoting "propaganda of the deed" through bombings. Dynamite enabled urban attacks, targeting symbols of authority.


Anti-Colonial Wave (1920s-1960s)

Groups fought empires, such as Irish Republicans and Algerian FLN using bombings against British and French rule. Violence focused on liberation, with assassinations of colonial officials.


New Left Wave (1960s-1990s)

Marxist groups like Germany's Red Army Faction and Italy's Red Brigades conducted kidnappings and bombings against capitalism and imperialism. Tactics emphasized urban guerrilla warfare.


Religious Wave (1979-Present)

Islamist groups like al-Qaeda shifted to global jihad, using suicide bombings and mass casualty attacks for apocalyptic goals. This era features decentralized networks and religious justification.


Citations:

[1] History of terrorism - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_terrorism

[2] Terrorism | Definition, History, Examples, Groups, & Facts https://www.britannica.com/topic/terrorism

[3] Terrorism - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism

[4] A Brief History of Terrorism https://tdhj.org/blog/post/history-terrorism/

[5] Video - A Brief History of Terrorism https://www.dvidshub.net/video/873365/brief-history-terrorism

[6] Terrorism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/terrorism/

[7] The Psychology of Terrorism https://items.ssrc.org/after-september-11/the-psychology-of-terrorism/

[8] Terrorism, Justification and Illusion https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctytho/SmilanskyTerrorism.html

[9] Rethinking the Philosophy of Terrorism https://gtr.ukri.org/projects

[10] Psychology of Terrorism https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/208552.pdf

[11] The psychological aspects of terrorism: from denial to ... https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1299349/

[12] Terrorism in Historical Perspective https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/topic_display.cfm?tcid=94

[13] Chapter: 2. Origins and Contexts of Terrorism https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/10570/chapter/4

[14] Digital History http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/topic_display.cfm?tcid=94

[15] The Psychology of Terrorism and Radicalization https://ideaexchange.uakron.edu/honors_research_projects/62/

[16] NCJRS Virtual Library https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/inspiration-and-origins-global-waves-terrorism

[17] Philosophy in a Time of Terror: Dialogues with Jurgen ... https://press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/066649.ht

[18] Thoughts on the Philosophy of Terrorism https://scholars.law.unlv.edu/facpub/325/

[19] [PDF] The Mind of the Terrorist - France Diplomatie https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/critik_psychoterrorisme.pdf

[20] Origin, Objective, and History of Terrorism and Terrorist Or https://ideas.repec.org/h/spr/sprchp/978-3-030-96577-8_2.html

[21] Psychology of Terrorism https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1570&context=mhlp_facpub

[22] Terrorism - Our World in Data https://ourworldindata.org/terrorism

[23] Table of Contents - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://plato.stanford.edu/contents.html

[24] War - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/war/

[25] Terrorism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://www.thetedkarchive.com/library/igor-primoratz-terrorism-stanford-encyclopedia-of-philosophy/bbselect?selected=pre-post

[26] Anne Schwenkenbecher, Terrorism: A Philosophical Enquiry https://philpapers.org/rec/SCHTAP-12

[27] [PDF] Module 1 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM https://www.unodc.org/documents/e4j/18-04932_CT_Mod_01_ebook_FINALpdf.pdf

[28] Morals and Ethics in Counterterrorism|Conatus https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/Conatus/article/view/34495

[29] The Origins of Modern Terrorism (Chapter 26) https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history-of-violence/origins-of-modern-terrorism/5062F0C7EC20EDD5B3D839D153B497C7

[30] The Concept of Evil - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concept-evil/

[31] A psychological typology of terror organizations - ScienceDirect.com https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1359178921000161

[32] The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to ISIS on JSTOR https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctv1wxrp4

[33] Terrorism https://plato.stanford.edu/ENTRIES/terrorism/

Saturday, December 20, 2025

рдХ्рд░ोрдз : рдорд╣ाрд╡ीрд░ рдк्рд░рд╕ाрдж рдж्рд╡िрд╡ेрджी

 рдкुрдг्рдпрддिрдеि рд╡िрд╢ेрд╖ 


рдпाрдж рд░рдЦिрдП, рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХा рд╡िрд╡ेрдХ рд╕े рд╢рдд्рд░ुрддा рд╣ै। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╡िрд╡ेрдХ рдХा рдкूрд░ा рд╢рдд्рд░ु рд╣ै। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдПрдХ рдк्рд░рдХाрд░ рдХी рдк्рд░рдЪंрдб рдЖँрдзी рд╣ै। рдЬрдм рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд░ूрдкी рдЖँрдзी рдЖрддी рд╣ै, рддрдм рджूрд╕рд░े рдХी рдмाрдд рдирд╣ीं рд╕ुрдиाрдИ рдкрдб़рддी। рдЙрд╕ рд╕рдордп рдХोрдИ рдЪाрд╣े рдХुрдЫ рднी рдХрд╣े, рд╕рдм рд╡्рдпрд░्рде рдЬाрддा рд╣ै। рдЖँрдзी рдоें рднी рдХिрд╕ी рдХी рдмाрдд рдирд╣ीं рд╕ुрди рдкрдб़рддी। рдЗрд╕рд▓िрдП рдРрд╕ी рдЖँрдзी рдХे рд╕рдордп рдмाрд╣рд░ рд╕े рд╕рд╣ाрдпрддा рдоिрд▓рдиा рдЕрд╕ंрднрд╡ рд╣ै। рдпрджि рдХुрдЫ рд╕рд╣ाрдпрддा рдоिрд▓ рд╕рдХрддी рд╣ै рддो рднीрддрд░ рд╕े рд╣ी рдоिрд▓ рд╕рдХрддी рд╣ै। рдЕрддрдПрд╡ рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдХो рдЙрдЪिрдд рд╣ै рдХि рд╡рд╣ рдкрд╣рд▓े рд╣ी рд╕े рд╡िрд╡ेрдХ, рд╡िрдЪाрд░ рдФрд░ рдЪिंрддрди рдХो рдЕрдкрдиे рд╣ृрджрдп рдоें рдЗрдХрдЯ्рдаा рдХрд░ рд░рдЦे рдЬिрд╕рдоें рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд░ूрдкी рдЖँрдзी рдХे рд╕рдордп рд╡рд╣ рдЙрдирд╕े рднीрддрд░ рд╕े рд╕рд╣ाрдпрддा рд▓े рд╕рдХे। рдЬрдм рдХोрдИ рдирдЧрд░ рдХिрд╕ी рдмрд▓рд╡ाрди рд╢рдд्рд░ु рд╕े рдШेрд░ рд▓िрдпा рдЬाрддा рд╣ै, рддрдм рдЙрд╕ рдирдЧрд░ рдоें рдмाрд╣рд░ рд╕े рдХोрдИ рд╡рд╕्рддु рдирд╣ीं рдЖ рд╕рдХрддी। рдЬो рдХुрдЫ рднीрддрд░ рд╣ोрддा рд╣ै, рд╡рд╣ी рдХाрдо рдЖрддा рд╣ै। рдХ्рд░ोрдзांрдз рд╣ोрдиे рдкрд░ рднी рдмाрд╣рд░ рдХी рдХोрдИ рд╡рд╕्рддु рдХाрдо рдирд╣ीं рдЖрддी। рдЗрд╕ीрд▓िрдП рд╣ृрджрдп рдХे рднीрддрд░ рд╕ुрд╡िрдЪाрд░ рдФрд░ рдЪिंрддрди рдХी рдЖрд╡рд╢्рдпрдХрддा рд╣ोрддी рд╣ै।

рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдЗрддрдиा рдмुрд░ा рд╡िрдХाрд░ рд╣ै рдХि рд╡рд╣ рд╕ुрд╡िрдЪाрд░ рдХो рдЬрдб़ рд╕े рдиाрд╢ рдХрд░рдиे рдХी рдЪेрд╖्рдЯा рдХрд░рддा рд╣ै। рд╡рд╣ рд╡िрд╖ рд╣ै; рдХ्рдпोंрдХि рдЙрд╕рдХे рдирд╢े рдоें рднрд▓े-рдмुрд░े рдХा рдЬ्рдЮाрди рдирд╣ीं рд░рд╣рддा। рд╡рд╣ рдоूрд░्рддिрдоाрди् рдордд्рд╕рд░ рд╣ै, рдЙрд╕рдХे рдХाрд░рдг рдХ्рд╖ुрдж्рд░ рд╕े рдХ्рд╖ुрдж्рд░ рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдХा рднी рд▓ोрдЧ рдордд्рд╕рд░ рдХрд░рдиे рд▓рдЧрддे рд╣ैं। рдХ्рд░ोрдзी рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдк्рд░рдд्рдпेрдХ рдмाрдд рдкрд░, рдк्рд░рдд्рдпेрдХ рджुрд░्рдШрдЯрдиा рдкрд░ рдФрд░ рдк्рд░рдд्рдпेрдХ рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдкрд░, рдмिрдиा рдХाрд░рдг рдЕрдерд╡ा рдмрд╣ुрдд рд╣ी рдеोрдб़े рдХाрд░рдг рд╕े, рдмिрдЧрдб़ рдЙрдарддा рд╣ै। рдпрджि рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдФрд░ рд▓ोрднी рдордиुрд╖्рдпों рдХी рдЕрдкेрдХ्рд╖ा рдЕрдзिрдХ рдзрдирд╡ाрди рдХा рдХाрд░рдг рдмрд╣ुрдд рдмрдб़ा рд╣ुрдЖ рддो рд╡рд╣ рдЙрдЧ्рд░ рд░ूрдк рдзाрд░рдг рдХрд░рддा рд╣ै। рдФрд░ рдпрджि рдЙрд╕рдХा рдХाрд░рдг рдЫोрдЯा рд╣ुрдЖ рддो рдЪिрдб़рдЪिрдб़ाрд╣рдЯ рд╣ी рддрдХ рдЙрд╕рдХी рдиौрдмрдд рдкрд╣ुँрдЪрддी рд╣ै। рдЕрддрдПрд╡, рдпा рддो рд╡рд╣ рдк्рд░рдЪंрдб рд╣ोрддा рд╣ै рдпा рдЙрдкрд╣ाрд╕рдЬрдирдХ। рджोрдиों рдк्рд░рдХाрд░ рд╕े рд╡рд╣ рдмुрд░ा рд╣ोрддा рд╣ै। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдХे рд╢рд░ीрд░ рдХो рднрдпाрдирдХ рдХрд░ рджेрддा рд╣ै; рдЪेрд╣рд░े рдХो рдХुрдд्рд╕िрдд рдХрд░ рджेрддा рд╣ै; рдЖँрдЦों рдХो рд╡िрдХрд░ाрд▓ рдХрд░ рджेрддा рд╣ै; рдЪेрд╣рд░े рдХो рдЖрдЧ рдХे рд╕рдоाрди рд▓ाрд▓ рдХрд░ рджेрддा рд╣ै; рдмाрддрдЪीрдд рдХो рдмрд╣ुрдд рдЙрдЧ्рд░ рдХрд░ рджेрддा рд╣ै। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рди рддो рдордиुрд╖्рдпрддा рд╣ी рдХा рдЪिрд╣्рди рд╣ै рдФрд░ рди рд╕्рд╡рднाрд╡ рдХे рд╕рд░рд▓ рдХिंрд╡ा рдЖрдд्рдоा рдХे рд╢ुрдж्рдз рд╣ोрдиे рд╣ी рдХा рдЪिрд╣्рди рд╣ै। рд╡рд╣ рднीрд░ुрддा рдЕрдерд╡ा рдорди рдХी рдХ्рд╖ुрдж्рд░рддा рдХा рдЪिрд╣्рди рд╣ै। рдХ्рдпोंрдХि рдкुрд░ुрд╖ों рдХी рдЕрдкेрдХ्рд╖ा рд╕्рдд्рд░िрдпों рдХो рдЕрдзिрдХ рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдЖрддा рд╣ै; рдиीрд░ोрдЧ рдордиुрд╖्рдпों рдХी рдЕрдкेрдХ्рд╖ा рд░ोрдЧिрдпों рдХो, рдпुрд╡ा рдкुрд░ुрд╖ों рдХी рдЕрдкेрдХ्рд╖ा рдмुрдб्рдвों рдХो; рдФрд░ рднाрдЧ्рдпрд╡ाрдиों рдХी рдЕрдкेрдХ्рд╖ा рдЕрднाрдЧिрдпों рдХो। рдЬो рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдХ्рд╖ुрдж्рд░ рд╣ै рдЙрди्рд╣ीं рдХो рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╢ोрднा рджेрддा рд╣ै; рд╕рдЬ्рдЮाрди, рдЙрджाрд░ рдФрд░ рд╕рдд्рдкुрд░ुрд╖ों рдХो рдирд╣ीं।

рдЬिрд╕े рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдЖрддा рд╣ै рд╡рд╣ рдЙрд╕े рд╣ी рджुःрдЦрджाрдпрдХ рдирд╣ीं рд╣ोрддा; рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХे рд╕рдордп рдЬो рд▓ोрдЧ рд╡рд╣ाँ рд╣ोрддे рд╣ैं, рдЙрдирдХो рднी рд╡рд╣ рджुःрдЦрджाрдпрдХ рд╣ो рдЬाрддा рд╣ै। рдЪाрд░ рдЖрджрдоिрдпों рдХे рд╕ाрдордиे рдХिрд╕ी рдЫोрдЯे рд╕े рдЕрдкрд░ाрдз рдкрд░ рдиौрдХрд░-рдЪाрдХрд░ों рдХो рдмुрд░ा-рднрд▓ा рдХрд╣рдиा рдФрд░ рдЙрди рдкрд░ рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХрд░рдиा рдХिрд╕ी рдХो рдЕрдЪ्рдЫा рдирд╣ीं рд▓рдЧрддा। рдЗрд╕ рдк्рд░рдХाрд░ рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХрд░рдиा рдФрд░ рдЙрдЪिрдд-рдЕрдиुрдЪिрдд рдмोрд▓рдиा рдЕрд╕рдн्рдпрддा рдХा рд▓рдХ्рд╖рдг рд╣ै। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╣ी рдХे рдХाрд░рдг рд╕्рдд्рд░ी-рдкुрд░ुрд╖ рдоें рдмिрдЧाрдб़ рд╣ो рдЬाрддा рд╣ै। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╣ी рдХे рдХाрд░рдг рдоिрдд्рд░ों рдХा рд╕ाрде, рд╕рднा-рд╕рдоाрдЬ рдХा рдЬाрдиा, рдФрд░ рдЬाрди рдкрд╣рдЪाрдирд╡ाрд▓ों рдХे рд╕ाрде рдЙрдардиा-рдмैрдардиा рдЕрд╕рд╣्рдп рд╣ो рдЬाрддा рд╣ै। 

рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╣ी рдХे рдХाрд░рдг рд╕ीрдзी-рд╕ाрджी рд╣ँрд╕ी рдХी рдмाрддों рд╕े рднрдпाрдирдХ рдФрд░ рд╢ोрдХрдХाрд░рдХ рдШрдЯрдиाрдПँ рдкैрджा рд╣ो рдЬाрддी рд╣ैं। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╣ी рдХे рдХाрд░рдг рдоिрдд्рд░ рдж्рд░ोрд╣ рдХрд░рдиे рд▓рдЧрддे рд╣ैं। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╣ी рдХे рдХाрд░рдг рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдЕрдкрдиे рдЖрдк рдХो рднूрд▓ рдЬाрддा рд╣ै, рдЙрд╕рдХी рд╡िрдЪाрд░ рд╢рдХ्рддि рдЬाрддी рд░рд╣рддी рд╣ै; рдФрд░ рдмाрддрдЪीрдд рдХрд░рдиे рдоें рд╡рд╣ рдХुрдЫ рдХा рдХुрдЫ рдХрд╣рдиे рд▓рдЧрддा рд╣ै। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╣ी рдХे рдХाрд░рдг рдордиुрд╖्рдп, рдХिрд╕ी рд╡рд╕्рддु рдХा рдЪुрдкрдЪाрдк рдЬ्рдЮाрди рдк्рд░ाрдк्рдд рди рдХрд░рдХे, рд╡्рдпрд░्рде рдЭрдЧрдб़ा рдХрд░рдиे рд▓рдЧрддा рд╣ै। рдЬिрдирдХो рдИрд╢्рд╡рд░ рдиे рдк्рд░рднुрддा рджी рд╣ै рдЙрдирдХो рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдШрдоंрдбी рдмрдиा рджेрддा рд╣ै। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╕рд░ाрд╕рд░ рд╡िрдЪाрд░ рдкрд░ рдкрд░рджा рдбाрд▓ рджेрддा рд╣ै, рдЙрдкрджेрд╢ рдФрд░ рд╢िрдХ्рд╖ा рдХो рдХ्рд▓ेрд╢рджाрдпрдХ рдХрд░ рджेрддा рд╣ै; рд╢्рд░ीрдоाрди рдХो рдж्рд╡ेрд╖ рдХा рдкाрдд्рд░ рдХрд░ рджेрддा рд╣ै। рдЬो рд▓ोрдЧ рднाрдЧ्рдпрд╡ाрди् рдирд╣ीं, рд╡े рдпрджि рдХ्рд░ोрдзी рд╣ुрдП рддो рдЙрди рдкрд░ рдХोрдИ рджрдпा рдирд╣ीं рдХрд░рддा। рдХ्рд░ोрдзी рдЕрдиेрдХ рдмुрд░े рд╡िрдХाрд░ों рдХी рдЦिрдЪрдб़ी рд╣ै। рдЙрд╕рдоें рджुःрдЦ рднी рд╣ै, рдж्рд╡ेрд╖ рднी рд╣ै, рднрдп рднी рд╣ै, рддिрд░рд╕्рдХाрд░ рднी рд╣ै, рдШрдоंрдб рднी рд╣ै, рдЕрд╡िрд╡ेрдХрддा рднी рд╣ै, рдЙрддाрд╡рд▓ी рднी рд╣ै, рдиिрд░्рдмोрдзрддा рднी рд╣ै। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХे рдХाрд░рдг рджूрд╕рд░ों рдХो рдЪाрд╣े рдЬिрддрдиा рдХ्рд▓ेрд╢ рдоिрд▓े, рддрдеाрдкि рдЬिрд╕ рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдХो рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдЖрддा рд╣ै рдЙрд╕ी рдХो рд╕рдмрд╕े рдЕрдзिрдХ рдХ्рд▓ेрд╢ рдоिрд▓рддा рд╣ै; рдФрд░ рдЙрд╕ी рдХी рд╕рдмрд╕े рдЕрдзिрдХ рд╣ाрдиि рднी рд╣ोрддी рд╣ै।

рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╕े рдмрдЪрдиे рдЕрдерд╡ा рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХो рджूрд░ рдХрд░рдиे рдХे рд▓िрдП рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХрд░рдиा рдЙрдЪिрдд рдирд╣ीं। рдЕрдкрдиे рдКрдкрд░ рднी рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХрд░рдиे рд╕े рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдмрдв़рддा рд╣ै, рдШрдЯрддा рдирд╣ीं। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╕े рдмрдЪрдиे рдХे рд▓िрдП рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдХो рдЪाрд╣िрдП рдХि рд╡рд╣ рдЕрдкрдиे рдорди рдоें рджृрдв़рддा рд╕े рдкрд╣рд▓े рдпрд╣ рдк्рд░рдг рдХрд░े рдХि рд╡рд╣ рдЙрд╕ рджिрди рдХ्рд░ोрдз рди рдХрд░ेрдЧा, рдлिрд░ рдЪाрд╣े рдЙрд╕рдХी рдХिрддрдиी рд╣ी рд╣ाрдиि рдХ्рдпों рди рд╣ो। рдЗрд╕ рдк्рд░рдХाрд░ рдк्рд░рдг рдХрд░рдХे рдЙрд╕े рд╕рдЬрдЧ рд░рд╣рдиा рдЪाрд╣िрдП। рдПрдХ рджिрди рдмрд╣ुрдд рдирд╣ीं рд╣ोрддा। рдпрджि рд╡рд╣ рдПрдХ рджिрди рднी рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХो рдЬीрдд рд▓ेрдЧा рддो рджूрд╕рд░े рджिрди рднी рд╡ैрд╕ा рд╣ी рдк्рд░рдг рдХрд░рдиे рдХे рд▓िрдП рдЙрд╕рдоें рд╕ाрд╣рд╕ рдЖ рдЬाрдПрдЧा। рддрдм рдЙрд╕े рджो рджिрди рдХ्рд░ोрдз рди рдХрд░рдиे рдХे рд▓िрдП рдк्рд░рдг рдХрд░рдиा рдЙрдЪिрдд рд╣ै। рдЗрд╕ рднाँрддि рдмрдв़ाрддे-рдмрдв़ाрддे рдХ्рд░ोрдз рди рдХрд░рдиे рдХा рд╕्рд╡рднाрд╡ рдкрдб़ рдЬाрдПрдЧा। рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдХा рдкूрд░ा рд╢рдд्рд░ु рд╣ै। рдЬिрд╕рдХे рдХाрд░рдг рдордиुрд╖्рдп рдХा рдЬीрд╡рди рджुःрдЦрдордп рд╣ो рдЬाрддा рд╣ै। рдЬिрд╕рдиे рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХो рдЬीрдд рд▓िрдпा рдЙрд╕рдХे рд▓िрдП рдХрдаिрди рд╕े рдХрдаिрди рдХाрдо рдХрд░рдиा рд╕рд╣рд▓ рд╣ै।

рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдХो рдмिрд▓рдХुрд▓ рд╣ी рдЫोрдб़ рджेрдиा рднी рдЕрдЪ्рдЫा рдирд╣ीं। рдХिрд╕ी рдХो рдмुрд░ा рдХाрдо рдХрд░рддे рджेрдЦ рдЙрд╕े рдкрд╣рд▓े рдоीрдаे рд╢рдм्рджों рд╕े рдЙрдкрджेрд╢ рджेрдиा рдЪाрд╣िрдП। рдпрджि рдРрд╕े рдЙрдкрджेрд╢ рд╕े рд╡рд╣ рдЙрд╕ рдХाрдо рдХो рди рдЫोрдб़े рддो рдЙрд╕ рдкрд░ рдХ्рд░ोрдз рднी рдХрд░рдиा рдЙрдЪिрдд рд╣ै। рдЬिрд╕ рдХ्рд░ोрдз рд╕े рдЕрдкрдиे рдХुрдЯुंрдмिрдпों, рдЕрдкрдиे рдЗрд╖्рдЯ рдоिрдд्рд░ों рдЕрдерд╡ा рджूрд╕рд░ों рдХा рдЖрдЪрд░рдг рд╕ुрдзрд░े, рдИрд╢्рд╡рд░ рдоें рдкूрдЬ्рдп-рдмुрдж्рдзि рдЙрдд्рдкрди्рди рд╣ो, рджрдпा, рдЙрджाрд░рддा рдФрд░ рдкрд░ोрдкрдХाрд░ рдоें рдк्рд░рд╡ृрдд्рддि рд╣ो, рд╡рд╣ рдХ्рд░ोрдз рдмुрд░ा рдирд╣ीं।


рд╕ाрднाрд░: рдорд╣ाрд╡ीрд░рдк्рд░рд╕ाрдж рдж्рд╡िрд╡ेрджी рд░рдЪрдиाрд╡рд▓ी рдЦंрдб-2, рд╕ंрдкाрджрдХ : рднाрд░рдд рдпाрдпाрд╡рд░, рдк्рд░рдХाрд╢рди : рдХिрддाрдмрдШрд░ рдк्рд░рдХाрд╢рди 


Ind AS vs IFRS differences in presentation

Key practical differences accountants must know

For day‑to‑day work, accountants mainly feel Ind AS vs IFRS differences in presentation, judgement, and a few specific areas like real estate, leases, financial instruments, and disclosures.


1. Presentation & Format

Ind AS prescribes specific formats aligned with Companies Act (Schedule III) and prohibits “extraordinary items”, so classification and line‑items are more rigid in practice.

IFRS allows more flexible statement formats (e.g., one or two statements of profit and loss + OCI), so migrating between the two often means re‑mapping and regrouping items.


2. Substance vs Legal Form

IFRS pushes hard on substance over form, so structures that legally avoid control or debt may still be consolidated or treated as liabilities.

Ind AS follows substance too, but is more influenced by Indian legal/regulatory form (e.g., some control and consolidation assessments, certain instruments shaped by local law), so you must check MCA/ICAI guidance and not just copy IFRS practice.


3. Revenue (Ind AS 115 vs IFRS 15)

Model is the same 5‑step control model, but Ind AS adds India‑specific guidance and exceptions (especially for real estate, construction‑type contracts, and multi‑element arrangements), which can shift timing of revenue for developers and EPC companies.

Practically: you may see percentage‑of‑completion vs point‑in‑time differences, and extra disclosure requirements in Indian financials versus overseas IFRS sets.


4. Leases (Ind AS 116 vs IFRS 16)

Both bring almost all leases on balance sheet for lessees (ROU asset + lease liability), but Ind AS 116 includes extra guidance and practical expedients tailored to Indian leasing patterns.

Ratios: leverage, EBITDA, and interest coverage will broadly move the same way, yet some borderline contracts may be treated slightly differently due to Indian regulatory interpretations.


5. Financial Instruments & Fair Value

Framework (Ind AS 109 vs IFRS 9) is aligned, but Ind AS tends to be a bit more conservative on fair value and carries India‑specific rules on classification, impairment, and tax effects.

For banks/NBFCs and NBFC‑like entities, local RBI/SEBI guidance plus Ind AS often mean more detailed ECL and disclosure requirements than a “plain IFRS 9” implementation in some foreign groups.


6. Consolidation & Control

Both require consolidation of subsidiaries, but there are subtle differences in defining control (potential voting rights, protective rights, de‑facto control) that can cause a subsidiary under IFRS to be unconsolidated or differently presented under Ind AS, or vice versa.

In groups with foreign parents, accountants often prepare two versions: one Ind AS set for Indian statutory filing and one IFRS package for group reporting, with reconciliation schedules.


7. Disclosures & Compliance Burden

Ind AS generally demands very detailed disclosures (risk, related parties, reconciliations, transition) driven by MCA/ICAI and Indian regulators.

IFRS disclosures are also heavy, but the exact checklists differ; in practice, Indian statutory FS under Ind AS can be more “form‑driven”, while IFRS packages for MNC parents are more “policy‑driven”.


If you say whether your focus is exams (CA/ACCA), statutory audits, or group reporting for an MNC, a tailored 1‑page “working cheat sheet” of these practical differences can be drafted for your blog or personal use.

A Meme Coin

A meme coin is a type of cryptocurrency that originated from an internet meme or has some other humorous characteristic, often gaining value primarily from social media momentum and community hype rather than any underlying fundamental utility. They are essentially digital tokens that embody internet culture and trends. 

For illustration purposes 

Key Characteristics

Origin: Inspired by online jokes, pop culture, or viral trends (e.g., dog images like the Shiba Inu).

Utility: Most meme coins lack a strong use case or real-world application, unlike cryptocurrencies such as Ethereum which are tied to specific blockchain features.

Value Driver: Their price is largely driven by community enthusiasm, social media buzz, celebrity endorsements, and speculative trading (FOMO - fear of missing out).

Volatility and Risk: Meme coins are highly volatile and considered very risky investments due to the lack of intrinsic value and heavy reliance on continuous new investment, which can lead to rapid price collapses when interest wanes.

Technology: They run on existing blockchain technology, such as Ethereum or Solana. 

Examples of Popular Meme Coins

The most famous examples are Dogecoin (DOGE), the original meme coin created in 2013, and Shiba Inu (SHIB), which followed later. Other examples include Memecoin (MEME), which was explicitly created with no utility purely for entertainment purposes. 


How I can make my own meme coin and earn from it


You can launch a meme coin by creating a simple fungible token (like an ERC‑20/BEP‑20), deploying it to a blockchain, then listing it on a DEX where people can trade it and pay you fees or buy from you.


Big picture


A meme coin is just a token on an existing chain (Ethereum, BNB Chain, Solana, Polygon, etc.), not a whole new blockchain.

You earn mainly by:

  • Holding a large share of the supply and selling some as price goes up.
  • Taking a share of trading fees by providing liquidity on DEXs like Uniswap or PancakeSwap.
  • Optionally adding taxes/fees in the smart contract (e.g., 1–5% on each transfer that goes to a dev wallet), though this can scare away serious investors.


Core steps to create a meme coin


1. Choose blockchain and tools 

  • Popular chains: Ethereum (ERC‑20), BNB Chain (BEP‑20), Solana, Polygon.
  • For beginners, use no‑code/low‑code tools like thirdweb (ERC‑20), Binance/BNB token creators, or Smithii token creators for BNB/Polygon.


2. Define token details

  • Name, symbol, total supply, decimals, and basic tokenomics (how much supply you keep, how much goes to community, liquidity, airdrops, etc.).
  • Decide if minting can happen later or supply is fixed; you can lock or renounce minting to build trust.


3. Deploy the token contract

  • With a tool like thirdweb: connect wallet, choose “Token / ERC‑20”, enter name, symbol, image, chain, and click Deploy.
  • With Remix + OpenZeppelin: write a simple ERC‑20 or BEP‑20 contract, compile and deploy with MetaMask connected to your chosen network.
  • Pay gas fees; on cheaper chains this may be a few dollars, on Ethereum it can be much more.


4. Mint tokens to your wallet 

  • After deployment, mint the full initial supply to your wallet (e.g., 1,000,000,000 tokens).


5. Create a market on a DEX

  • Go to Uniswap (Ethereum/Polygon/Base) or PancakeSwap (BNB Chain), create a pool with your token and a base token (ETH, WETH, WBNB, USDT, etc.).
  • Add liquidity: you deposit some of your meme tokens plus some ETH/BNB/USDT; this sets the starting price and gives people a place to trade.


6. Set up basic security/trust signals

  • Optionally lock liquidity (send LP tokens to a locker/vesting contract) and renounce ownership or restrict dangerous functions; this reduces rug‑pull fears.
  • Publish the contract address, verify the source code (Etherscan/BscScan), and explain tokenomics clearly.


7. Market and build community

  • Create a strong meme/brand, Twitter/X, Telegram, maybe a simple website.
  • Use collaborations with meme pages/influencers, airdrops, and contests to attract holders.


Ways you actually earn


Selling part of your allocation

If you keep, say, 20–40% of supply and the price pumps, you can sell a portion for profit, ideally gradually to avoid crashing the price.

DEX trading fees as liquidity provider 

When you add liquidity, you earn a share of the swap fees (e.g., 0.3% on Uniswap) proportional to your liquidity.

Built‑in token taxes or utilities

Some tokens send a small part of each transaction to a dev/marketing wallet or to a revenue‑sharing pool, but this must be transparent and legal in your jurisdiction.

You can also build utilities (games, NFTs, staking) where people pay fees in your coin.


Legal and risk points (very important)

Meme coins are extremely risky; most go to zero and many launches are rugs or scams, so reputation matters. 

In India and many countries, crypto plus any presale/ICO may fall under securities or tax regulations; speak with a local CA/lawyer before taking investors’ money.

Never promise guaranteed returns; treat this like a high‑risk startup experiment, not a sure‑shot income source.


If you want, the next step can be: choose a chain (e.g., BNB Chain for low fees) and then walk step‑by‑step through deploying one simple token with a no‑code tool.

Friday, December 19, 2025

Ind AS vs IFRS: Complete Guide for Indian Accountants

 Ind AS vs IFRS
 Ind AS vs IFRS

Ind AS and IFRS follow the same broad principles‑based approach, but Ind AS is IFRS adapted to Indian legal, tax, and regulatory realities, so there are important carve‑outs and extra guidance.


Big Picture


IFRS: Global standards issued by IASB, used (or permitted) in 140+ countries for cross‑border comparability.

Ind AS: Indian Accounting Standards notified by MCA, largely converged with IFRS but modified for Indian law, RBI/SEBI rules, and local practices.

Applicability: Ind AS mandatory for listed and large Indian companies (net worth thresholds), while IFRS applies in many foreign jurisdictions or at group level for foreign parents.



Topic‑wise Differences

1. Revenue Recognition (Ind AS 115 vs IFRS 15)

  • Both use the 5‑step model based on transfer of control, but Ind AS 115 has India‑specific guidance, especially for real estate and certain long‑term contracts.
  • Differences can arise in how performance obligations are identified and in timing for construction/real‑estate projects.


2. Leases (Ind AS 116 vs IFRS 16)  

  • Both bring most leases on balance sheet for lessees (ROU asset + lease liability), but Ind AS 116 includes some additional Indian provisions and practical reliefs.
  • Disclosures and certain transitional options may differ slightly due to MCA/ICAI decisions.


3. Financial Instruments (Ind AS 109 vs IFRS 9)

  • Classification/measurement categories (amortized cost, FVOCI, FVTPL) and ECL impairment model are aligned.
  • Ind AS may have extra disclosures and tweaks for Indian banks/NBFCs and regulatory constraints.


4. Presentation & Disclosures (Ind AS 1, 7, 101 etc.)

  • Ind AS prohibits extraordinary items and mandates detailed formats consistent with Companies Act Schedule III.
  • IFRS allows more flexibility in format and, while extraordinary items are discouraged, presentation isn't tied to a statutory format.


5. Investment Property & PPE (Ind AS 40, 16 vs IAS 40, IAS 16) 

  • Ind AS 40 generally uses the cost model with fair value in notes only, whereas IFRS can use either cost or fair value model in the financials.
  • Revaluation of PPE is permitted under both, but Ind AS links useful lives and residual values to Indian guidance (e.g., Schedule II).


6. Convergence & Roadmap (Good background section)  

  • Explain the MCA 2015 notification and phased implementation (large/listed companies first) and the objective of better global comparability for Indian companies.

Is Accounting same all over the World


No, accounting is not the same all over the world. Basic principles like double-entry bookkeeping are universal, but standards, regulations, and practices vary significantly by country.


Key Differences

Countries follow different frameworks, such as US GAAP in the United States, which is rules-based and detailed, versus IFRS used in over 140 countries including the EU, India, and Australia, which is principles-based and more flexible. For example, revenue recognition and asset valuation methods differ, with GAAP emphasizing specific rules while IFRS allows more judgment.


Regional Variations

In India, Ind AS aligns closely with IFRS but includes local tweaks for taxation and reporting, differing from the April-March financial year unique to the country. Australia blends IFRS with its own AASB standards, focusing on tax and investor needs, while places like China use CAS with distinct state influences.


Global Convergence

Efforts by bodies like the IASB promote IFRS adoption for multinational consistency, but full uniformity remains elusive due to cultural, legal, and tax factors. Professionals often need qualifications like CPA or CA tailored to local rules.

Thursday, December 18, 2025

Popular Applications Built with Python


Python is a versatile programming language used to build a vast range of applications, from popular consumer apps and websites to complex scientific and enterprise software. Its simplicity and extensive library ecosystem make it suitable for almost any type of development. 

Popular Applications Built with Python

Many widely used real-world applications and services incorporate Python into their technology stack. 

Instagram: Uses Python and the Django framework for its backend services, powering one of the largest social media platforms in the world.

Spotify: Employs Python for a large portion of its backend services and data analysis, which helps power music recommendations.

Netflix: Uses Python throughout its content lifecycle, from deciding which content to fund to operating the content delivery network (CDN).

Google: Python has been an important part of Google since its beginning and is used by dozens of Google engineers for various systems.

YouTube: Uses Python for multiple purposes, including video administration, template control, and data access, citing its speed of development and maintainability.

Reddit: The social news aggregator was rewritten in Python in 2005, leveraging the language's readability and wide array of libraries.

Dropbox: The cloud file hosting service was built using Python for everything, valuing its readability and cross-platform support.

Uber: Python is one of the primary languages powering Uber's backend services. 

Common Use Cases

Python's flexibility allows it to be used across a variety of domains: 

Web Development: Frameworks like Django, Flask, and Pyramid provide robust tools for building web applications and content management systems.

Data Science and Machine Learning (AI/ML): Python is a dominant language in this field, with libraries such as NumPy, Pandas, TensorFlow, and PyTorch used for data analysis, visualization, and creating AI models.

Scientific and Numeric Computing: Libraries like SciPy and Matplotlib are used in mathematics, science, and engineering for complex calculations and plotting.

Software Development/Automation: It is used as a support language for build control, testing, bug tracking (e.g., Trac), and general system administration tasks.

Desktop GUIs: Libraries such as Tkinter, PyQt, and Kivy enable the creation of cross-platform desktop and multi-touch applications.

Game Development: Python is used in the development of popular games like The Sims 4 and Battlefield 2, often as a scripting language.

Business Applications: It is used to build enterprise resource planning (ERP) and e-commerce systems, such as Odoo and Tryton. 

Wednesday, December 17, 2025

Typescript vs Javascript

 

TypeScript and JavaScript are closely related, but they solve slightly different problems. Choosing between them depends on project size, team, and how much safety you want in your code.

Core difference

TypeScript is a superset of JavaScript that adds a static type system and extra language features, and then compiles down to plain JavaScript. JavaScript is a dynamically typed scripting language that runs directly in browsers and in environments like Node.js without a separate compilation step.


Typing and error checking

JavaScript is dynamically typed, so type errors are only caught at runtime, which can lead to bugs appearing in production if tests miss them. TypeScript adds optional static typing, catching many type-related errors during development/compilation and making large codebases safer and easier to refactor. 

Features and tooling

TypeScript introduces features such as interfaces, generics, access modifiers, decorators, and strong type inference on top of standard JavaScript syntax. Because of types, editors and IDEs can provide richer autocompletion, navigation, and refactoring tools in TypeScript projects than in plain JavaScript.

Learning curve and setup

JavaScript is easier to start with: it has no build step by default and is widely taught as the first web language. TypeScript requires learning type syntax and setting up a compile step (for example with tsc, webpack, or a framework), which adds complexity but pays off more as the project grows.

Typical use cases

JavaScript is well-suited for small scripts, quick prototypes, and simple websites where development speed and minimal tooling matter most. TypeScript is especially useful for large applications, team projects, and enterprise codebases (frontend or backend) where maintainability, refactoring, and early error detection are priorities.


When should I choose TypeScript over JavaScript


TypeScript is most valuable when your codebase is big, long-lived, or maintained by multiple developers. In small, short-term projects, plain JavaScript is often enough.

Large and long-term projects

Choose TypeScript when the project is meant to grow over time (enterprise apps, SaaS products, internal platforms) rather than a one-off script or landing page. Static typing makes refactoring and adding features safer as the codebase gets larger. TypeScript’s type system helps catch regressions early, which is crucial for long-lived applications where requirements frequently change.

Teams and collaboration

Use TypeScript when multiple developers work on the same code, especially across squads or time zones. Types act as living documentation, clarifying data structures and APIs without reading every implementation. This shared “contract” reduces miscommunication, speeds onboarding, and improves productivity in big teams.

Reliability and domain complexity

Pick TypeScript when bugs are costly (fintech, healthcare, enterprise systems) or the business logic is complex. Static typing catches mismatched data shapes and wrong function calls at build time instead of in production. For apps that integrate many APIs or microservices, typed interfaces dramatically reduce subtle integration errors.

Tooling, IDE help, and refactoring

Choose TypeScript if you rely heavily on IDE features like autocompletion, jump-to-definition, and safe automated refactors. Types give editors precise information, making navigation and refactoring far more reliable than in untyped JavaScript. This becomes increasingly important as your project structure and number of modules grow.

When JavaScript is still better

Plain JavaScript fits quick prototypes, small utilities, throwaway scripts, or very simple websites where setup time and speed matter more than long-term safety. For experiments, MVPs, or when collaborators are beginners who first need to grasp core JS, JavaScript can be the pragmatic starting point, with the option to migrate to TypeScript later.

Friday, December 12, 2025

The English language and it's influence to the world

 

English rose from a regional Germanic tongue in medieval England to today’s dominant global lingua franca through a combination of empire, economic power, and modern globalization.Its influence now permeates international business, science, diplomacy, technology, and popular culture, shaping how knowledge and power circulate worldwide.


Historical rise of English

Origins: English developed from the West Germanic dialects of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes who settled in Britain from the 5th century, later shaped by Norse and Norman French influences.

Empire and industry: From the 17th to early 20th century, the British Empire spread English across North America, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, while the Industrial Revolution and British leadership in trade and technology reinforced its prestige.


English as global lingua franca

20th century shift: After World War II, the economic, technological, and cultural dominance of the United States pushed English into core domains such as aviation, diplomacy, and global media.

Today’s scale: Estimates suggest around 1.5 billion people use English as a first, second, or foreign language, making it a key medium for cross‑cultural communication.


Influence on education and knowledge

Academic gatekeeper: Most top scientific journals, many university programs, and a large share of online educational content operate primarily in English, giving English‑knowing scholars easier access and visibility.

Curriculum impact: School systems worldwide integrate English from early grades, often restructuring curricula and teacher training around it as a skill tied to global mobility.


Impact on economy, politics, and culture

Economy and diplomacy: English is the default working language in many multinational companies, international organizations, tourism, and digital platforms, facilitating trade and negotiation.

Culture and media: Global pop music, cinema, social media, and tech interfaces largely operate in English, influencing local slang, hybrid codes (Hinglish, Spanglish, etc.), and even patterns of cultural consumption.


Benefits and inequalities

Advantages: Knowing English typically improves access to jobs, higher education, research, and international collaboration, especially in science, IT, and business.

Concerns: Dependence on English can marginalize local languages, create educational and economic gaps between English‑knowing elites and others, and bias global knowledge production toward Anglophone perspectives.


How did British colonialism spread English globally

British colonialism spread English globally by establishing it as the language of power, administration, trade, and education across a vast empire spanning the Americas, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. This created lasting English‑using elites and institutions that kept the language central even after political decolonization.


Empire expansion and settlement

Territorial spread: From the 17th century, British colonies in North America, the Caribbean, Australia, New Zealand, and southern Africa created large English‑speaking settler societies where English became the dominant native language.

Strategic ports: Trading posts and port cities in India, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa functioned as English‑using hubs for commerce and administration, radiating the language into surrounding regions.


Administration, law, and education

Official language of rule: Colonial governments used English for bureaucracy, courts, military command, and higher levels of governance, making it the key to employment and influence. 

Education policy: English‑medium schools, universities, and civil‑service exams produced local elites trained in English (e.g., in India, West Africa, the Caribbean), who then helped run the colonial state and later post‑colonial governments.


Trade, missionaries, and print culture

Commerce and shipping: English became a primary language of maritime trade, insurance, banking, and commercial correspondence across imperial networks.

Missions and media: Christian missionary schools, Bible translations, newspapers, and later radio and publishing in English reinforced its religious, cultural, and informational presence.


Legacy after decolonization

Official and link language: Many former colonies retained English as an official or associate official language (e.g., India, Nigeria, Kenya) or as a key “link language” between diverse ethnic and linguistic groups.

Platform for globalization: The imperial English network made it easier for English to become the main language of post‑1945 trade, diplomacy, science, and media when British, then American, power dominated the global order.

The foundation of England

England emerged as a unified kingdom in the early 10th century, when the Anglo‑Saxon kingdoms were consolidated under King ├Жthelstan, traditionally dated to 927 CE. [1][3][4] Later, this medieval kingdom became part of the larger British state through unions in 1707 and 1801. [5][6]


Pre‑English background

- After the end of Roman rule in Britain (5th century), Germanic groups—Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—settled and formed several small kingdoms. [7][8]

- These kingdoms, known as the Heptarchy (Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria, East Anglia, Kent, Essex, Sussex), competed for dominance over the territory that is now England. [1][9]


Unification under the Anglo‑Saxons

- In the 9th century, Viking invasions led to the Danelaw in the north and east, while Wessex under Alfred the Great emerged as the main English power and began reconquest. [1][10][11]

- By 927, ├Жthelstan—Alfred’s grandson—had taken York and brought all major Anglo‑Saxon and Viking territories under his rule, making him widely regarded as the first king of a unified England. [1][11][9][4]


From kingdom to part of Britain

- Through the later Middle Ages and early modern period, the Kingdom of England absorbed Wales (Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542) and shared a monarch with Scotland from 1603 in a personal union. [5][12]

- The Acts of Union 1707 then legally united the Kingdoms of England (including Wales) and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Acts of Union 1800 later created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. [5][4][12]


Citations:

[1] Kingdom of England https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England

[2] England https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England

[3] History of England https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England

[4] How The Anglo-Saxons Created England - History Insights https://historyinsights.com/how-the-anglo-saxons-created-england/

[5] Formation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_of_the_United_Kingdom

[6] Kingdom of Great Britain - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain

[7] Formation of Nation States: England Speaker- Dr. Dimpy Das http://www.hgcollege.edu.in/uploadfiles/England%20as%20a%20Nation%20State%204th%20Sem%20CBCS.pdf

[8] History of Anglo-Saxon England | Research Starters - EBSCO https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/history-anglo-saxon-england

[9] History of Anglo-Saxon England - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England

[10] Origins of the Kingdom of the English (Chapter 5) https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/writing-kingship-and-power-in-anglosaxon-england/origins-of-the-kingdom-of-the-english/02EA5266C0D391AD15C6A7E314DAF681

[11] Unification of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms - globhistory.org https://globhistory.org/en/article/korolevstvo_angliya/obedinenie_korolevstv_anglosaksov

[12] United Kingdom | History, Population, Map, Flag, Capital, & Facts https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom

[13] Kingdom of England | All About History of Kingdom of England https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=soPsX7lvsaQ

[14] The Development of England https://historyguild.org/the-development-of-england/

[15] State Formation in Early Modern England, c.1550–1700 https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/state-formation-in-early-modern-england-c15501700/5FEE0091CF93C201C806F0A5B05056E7

[16] Early Tribes of England | World History | General Studies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9nPseR1LqUI

[17] At what point did the separate An Anglo Saxon kingdoms (Wessex, Mercia, etc) become unified? https://www.reddit.com/r/MedievalHistory/comments/jnlvrx/at_what_point_did_the_separate_an_anglo_saxon/

[18] UNIT 17 FORMATION OF NATION-STATES -1 https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/20504/1/Unit-17.pdf

[19] How was England formed? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LWPLjg10D2A

[20] State Formation and Social Change in Early Modern England https://www.jstor.org/stable/4285899

Thursday, December 11, 2025

The formation of London

 

London began as the Roman town of Londinium, founded around 47–50 CE on the north bank of the Thames as a strategic trading and administrative centre. [1][2] Over time it declined after Roman rule, revived under the Anglo‑Saxons, and gradually evolved into England’s political capital in the medieval period. [1][3]


Roman Londinium

- The Romans established Londinium soon after their conquest of Britain, building a bridge over the Thames and laying out a planned town with streets, forum, and river port. [1][3][2]

- In the 2nd century, Londinium was enclosed by a substantial defensive wall and functioned as the province’s main commercial centre. [4][2]


Post‑Roman and Anglo‑Saxon phases

- After Roman withdrawal in the early 5th century, the town’s population and structures declined, though the defensive walls remained a landmark. [1][5]

- From the 7th century, an Anglo‑Saxon settlement grew nearby (often called Lundenwic), and by the 9th–10th centuries the old walled area (Lundenburh) was reoccupied and fortified against Viking attacks, restoring London as a major trading and political hub. [3][5][6]


Medieval capital and later growth

- By the 11th–12th centuries, especially after the Norman Conquest of 1066, London had effectively become the principal city of the English kingdom, with Westminster developing as the royal and governmental centre. [4][1]

- In the later medieval and early modern periods, London expanded beyond the old walls into suburbs, becoming the dominant financial, commercial, and cultural centre of England, and later of Britain’s global empire. [1][3][7]


Citations:

[1] History of England https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_England

[2] England https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England

[3] The Development of England https://historyguild.org/the-development-of-england/

[4] Kingdom of England https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England

[5] History of Anglo-Saxon England - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England

[6] How The Anglo-Saxons Created England - History Insights https://historyinsights.com/how-the-anglo-saxons-created-england/

[7] United Kingdom | History, Population, Map, Flag, Capital, & Facts https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom

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