The Social Contract by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The Social Contract by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The Social Contract (published in 1762) is a foundational work in political philosophy by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Its central concern is how legitimate political authority can exist in a society while preserving individual freedom and equality.

Key Ideas

Famous Opening Line: Rousseau begins with, “Man is born free, and he is everywhere in chains,” highlighting the paradox of natural liberty versus the constraints of society.

Legitimacy Based on Consent: Rousseau asserts that only governments based on the collective consent of the governed are legitimate, rejecting authority based on force and arguing that “might does not make right”.

The General Will: Central to Rousseau’s theory is the concept of the “general will”—the collective will of the people aimed at the common good, which forms the basis of law and legitimate authority. By voluntarily uniting under the general will, each person remains free because they are obeying laws they have a part in creating.

Sovereignty Lies with the People: The “sovereign” is the collective body of citizens acting in the common interest. Citizens are both law-makers and subjects, creating a direct democratic framework. Legislation must benefit all members equally; any government that usurps the general will breaks the social contract and loses legitimacy.

Liberty and Equality: Rousseau maintains that abandoning individual rights for the general will leads not to subjugation, but to a higher form of freedom—political liberty—which is inseparable from equality among citizens.

Obedience to the Law as Freedom: Rousseau controversially claims that individuals can be “forced to be free”: those who resist the general will are, by being compelled to obey, brought back to their true, collective interest[8][9]. This is not intended as justification for tyranny but as an articulation of civic duty and participation.

Historical Context and Impact

Critique of Wealth Inequality: Rousseau criticizes the deepening social inequalities fostered by the emergence of private property, which he saw as corrupting human morals and fragmenting social equality.

Influence: The book shaped both revolutionary and democratic thought in Europe and beyond—profoundly influencing French Revolution ideology, modern democracy, theories of justice, and later philosophers (such as Kant and Rawls).

Debates and Criticism: His theories have led to ongoing debates about balancing individual liberty with collective decision-making, potential dangers of majoritarianism, and the feasibility of enacting the “general will” in complex societies.

In Summary

The Social Contract is Rousseau’s answer to the fundamental question: “How can we be free and live together?” He proposes overcoming the pitfalls of inequality and domination by uniting free and equal individuals in a collective whose laws are rooted in the general will—they are then free as a community, not just as isolated individuals. This revolutionary notion continues to inform modern political theory and democratic ideals.

 Nationalism vs Patriotism

Nationalism and patriotism both involve pride and loyalty to one's country, but they differ significantly in their nature and implications.

Patriotism is a love and devotion to one's country based on its values, beliefs, and achievements. Patriots are proud of their country for what it does and support it through constructive criticism and efforts to improve it. Patriotism tends to promote peaceful coexistence and equality among nations, focusing on the well-being and prosperity of the nation as a whole.

Nationalism is a stronger, often more aggressive form of loyalty to one's nation. Nationalists may consider their nation superior to others and defend it regardless of its actions. Nationalism emphasizes national identity, culture, language, and heritage, often uniting people against perceived foreign threats or common enemies. It can be intolerant of criticism and may justify past mistakes to preserve national pride. Nationalism is sometimes associated with exclusionary or supremacist attitudes and can be divisive.

Notably, patriotism tends to support democratic values and social cohesion, while nationalism can lead to conflicts and human rights issues when taken to extremes.

In essence, patriotism is love for the country as it ought to be, while nationalism is pride in the country as it is, often regardless of moral considerations.

Historical origins of nationalism

The historical origins of nationalism are generally traced back to the late 18th and early 19th centuries, with the French Revolution (1789) widely regarded as a significant starting point. The Revolution introduced the principle of popular sovereignty—the idea that "the people" should rule—which profoundly influenced not only French nationalism but also German, Italian, and broader European intellectual movements.

Several intellectual developments contributed to nationalism’s emergence. Thinkers like Johann Gottfried Herder emphasized language and cultural identity as central to national belonging. The Age of Revolution challenged traditional religious and monarchical authority, leading intellectuals to seek new symbols, myths, and concepts to ground political loyalty and identity.

Three main theories explain the rise of nationalism:

1. Primordialism viewed nations as ancient and natural entities but is now largely considered outdated.
2. Modernization theory, the most accepted today, sees nationalism as a product of modernization processes—industrialization, urbanization, mass education—that enabled people to imagine themselves as part of a collective identity, or "imagined community."
3. Ethnosymbolism emphasizes the role of shared symbols, myths, and traditions in creating national identity.

Beyond intellectual origins, political events like the American Revolution and particularly Napoleon Bonaparte’s conquests spread nationalist ideas across Europe by mobilizing public opinion around states based on national sovereignty. Napoleon’s legal and military unifications reinforced feelings of national pride and inspired nationalist movements in defeated territories seeking their own unity.

In the 19th century, nationalism became a central political force, promoting unification movements in Germany and Italy, and challenging multi-ethnic empires like the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires. Nationalism served as a double-edged sword, inspiring freedom and cultural revival on one hand, while exacerbating ethnic divisions, conflicts, and ultimately contributing to the causes of World War I.

Nationalism originally grew alongside cultural nationalism, where poets and scholars elevated vernacular languages and national histories, laying the groundwork for later political nationalism focused on statehood and popular sovereignty.

In summary, nationalism as a modern phenomenon was born from the mix of Enlightenment ideas about individual rights and popular sovereignty, revolutionary transformations, and the socio-economic changes of modernization, deeply rooted in cultural symbols and political aspirations for self-determination.

Role of language in nationalism

Language plays a fundamental and multifaceted role in nationalism, serving as both a symbol and a practical tool for creating and sustaining national identity and unity. Here are the key roles language plays in nationalism:

Symbol of National Identity: Language is often seen as a core element of national identity. It embodies a nation's culture, history, and shared heritage, acting as a marker that distinguishes one nation from another. The use or revival of a national language can be a powerful assertion of cultural pride and political autonomy, as seen in cases like the Irish Gaelic revival or the promotion of Hebrew in the Zionist movement.

Unifying Force: A shared language promotes solidarity among people, providing a common means of communication that strengthens internal cohesion. This linguistic unity can bridge diverse regional or ethnic groups within a nation, fostering a sense of belonging and collective identity. For example, language policies promoting a national language can help unify multilingual countries politically and culturally.

Political and Mobilization Tool: Nationalist leaders and movements use language strategically in political rhetoric, propaganda, and education to mobilize support and convey nationalist ideologies. Language can evoke emotional responses, create a sense of urgency, and legitimize nationalist causes. Slogans, chants, and national anthems in a particular language help crystallize collective identity and political will.

Constructing Imagined Communities: Language enables people who will never meet to imagine themselves as part of one national community. Through shared language media, literature, poetry, and songs, nationals experience a sense of simultaneity and solidarity that is essential for nationhood.

Linguistic Identity and Nationalist Narratives: Language shapes how national stories and histories are told and understood. It plays a critical role in constructing nationalist narratives by reinforcing cultural symbols and shared values. Literature, folklore, and historical texts in the national language contribute to the perpetuation of nationalist sentiment.

Subtle Symbolism in Politics: Beyond communication, the form of language itself—such as alphabet choice or dialect—can become a nationalist symbol, as in the case of Serbia where the Cyrillic script is associated with nationalism. Political actors can use these linguistic symbols to signal nationalist affiliations and goals.

In sum, language is integral to nationalism as it connects people culturally and politically, forms the basis of national solidarity, and serves as a key medium through which nationalist ideologies are expressed and perpetuated. Its power lies not only in the content conveyed but also in the symbolic unification it fosters among members of a nation.

Citations:

[1] Explain the role of languages in developing the national ... https://www.doubtnut.com/pcmb-questions/13627

[2] A Language of Nationalism https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/schriftlich-german-journal/a-language-of-nationalism/

[3] The Power of Language in Shaping Nationalism https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/language-and-nationalism

[4] The Role of Language in Advancing Nationalism http://human.kanagawa-u.ac.jp/kenkyu/publ/pdf/syoho/no38/3803.pdf

[5] Language And Nationalism: Themes & Role https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/english/tesol-english/language-and-nationalism/

[6] Language Cues and Perceptions of Nationalism https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-025-10008-8

The rise of Christianity

The rise of Christianity is a fascinating and complex historical phenomenon that transformed the ancient world and continues to shape global culture. It began as a small, unorganized Jewish sect in the Roman province of Judea in the 1st century CE and grew to become the dominant religion of the Roman Empire and beyond.

Here's a breakdown of the key aspects of its rise:

1. Origins and Early Development (1st Century CE):

1. Jesus of Nazareth: Christianity centers on the life, teachings, crucifixion, and reported resurrection of Jesus, an itinerant Jewish preacher. His followers believed him to be the Messiah and the Son of God.
2. Jewish Context: Christianity emerged from within Judaism, sharing its monotheistic beliefs and many of its scriptures. Early Christians debated whether they should primarily preach to Jews or also to non-Jews (Gentiles).
3. Apostles and Early Community: After Jesus' death, his disciples, particularly Peter and Paul, played crucial roles in establishing and spreading the early Christian communities. The first community was founded in Jerusalem.
4. Paul of Tarsus: Paul, a Jewish convert to Christianity, became a pivotal figure in expanding the faith beyond Jewish communities. His missionary journeys throughout the Roman Empire and his numerous letters to Christian congregations (which form a significant part of the New Testament) were instrumental in articulating Christian theology and reaching a wider audience.
5. Koine Greek: The use of Koine Greek, the common language of the Roman Empire, for early Christian writings (including the Gospels and Paul's letters) made the message accessible to many people.

2. Historical Context of the Roman Empire:

• Roman Law and Hellenistic Culture: Christianity developed within the Roman Empire, which was characterized by Roman law and widespread Hellenistic (Greek) culture. This provided a framework for its spread, including established trade routes and a relatively unified political structure.
• Religious Landscape: The Roman Empire was largely polytheistic, with a pantheon of gods and a degree of religious tolerance for various cults, as long as they didn't undermine Roman authority or traditional practices.
• Persecution: Early Christians faced significant persecution from Roman authorities, often due to their refusal to worship the Roman gods and emperors, which was seen as disloyalty. Notable persecutions occurred under emperors like Nero (who blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE) and Diocletian. Despite this, persecution often strengthened the resolve of believers and drew sympathy from others.

3. Factors Contributing to its Spread:

• Message of Salvation and Hope: Christianity offered a promise of personal salvation and eternal life, which was a powerful appeal to people from all social strata, particularly in a world that often seemed harsh and uncertain. It contrasted with Roman paganism, which typically offered less emphasis on individual salvation.
• Inclusivity and Equality: The Christian message of equality among believers, regardless of social status, gender, or ethnicity, resonated with many. It attracted followers from diverse backgrounds, including the poor, slaves, and women, who found a sense of community and dignity within the new faith.
• Community and Social Support: Early Christian communities provided strong social networks and mutual support, especially during times of crisis (like epidemics). Christians often cared for the sick and vulnerable, which stood in stark contrast to prevailing societal norms.
• Miracles and Healings: Stories of miracles and healings attributed to Jesus and his followers convinced many that the Christian God was more powerful than the traditional Roman gods.
• Urban Centers and Trade Routes: Christianity primarily spread through urban centers and along the extensive Roman road and trade networks, making it easier for missionaries and followers to travel and share their faith.
• Martyrdom: The willingness of Christians to face persecution and even death for their faith (martyrdom) served as a powerful testimony and often inspired others to convert.

4. Key Figures in Early Christianity (Beyond Jesus and Paul):

• Peter: Considered one of the chief apostles, a leader in the early Jerusalem church.
• James the Just: Brother of Jesus and an important leader in the Jerusalem church.
• Apostolic Fathers: Early Christian leaders like Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, and Polycarp of Smyrna, who lived during or immediately after the time of the apostles and helped shape early Christian doctrine and organization.
• Apologists: Figures like Justin Martyr who defended Christianity against pagan criticisms and imperial persecution.
• Church Fathers: Later influential theologians and writers such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, Origen, Athanasius, and Augustine of Hippo, who played a crucial role in developing Christian theology, combating heresies, and establishing the foundational doctrines of the church.

5. Major Milestones in its Ascent:

• Council of Jerusalem (c. 48-50 CE): This early council addressed the crucial question of whether Gentile converts needed to follow Jewish law (like circumcision) to become Christians, ultimately deciding against it, which opened the door for wider conversion.
• Great Fire of Rome (64 CE): Emperor Nero blamed Christians, leading to the first imperial persecutions.
• Edict of Milan (313 CE): Emperor Constantine I, after experiencing a vision before a battle, converted to Christianity and issued the Edict of Milan, which decriminalized Christianity and granted religious freedom throughout the Roman Empire. This marked a turning point, ending official persecution.
• First Council of Nicaea (325 CE): Convened by Constantine, this council addressed theological disputes, particularly Arianism, and produced the Nicene Creed, a foundational statement of Christian belief.
• Theodosius I Makes Christianity the State Religion (380 CE): Emperor Theodosius I officially made Nicene Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire, solidifying its dominant position.

The rise of Christianity was not a singular event but a gradual process influenced by a complex interplay of religious belief, social dynamics, political circumstances, and the dedication of its adherents. Its ability to adapt, offer a compelling message, and build strong communities allowed it to flourish even in the face of immense adversity, ultimately transforming the religious and cultural landscape of the world.

Geoffrey Chaucer

Father of English Literature

The foundational writer of the English language is widely considered to be Geoffrey Chaucer.

He is often called the "Father of English Literature" or the "Father of English Poetry" because he played a pivotal role in legitimizing and popularizing Middle English as a literary language. Before Chaucer, much of the serious literature in England was written in Latin or Anglo-Norman French.

Chaucer's most famous work, The Canterbury Tales, written in Middle English, demonstrated the richness and expressive potential of the vernacular language. His choice to write in the language of the common people helped to elevate English and pave the way for future writers. He also contributed significantly to the vocabulary of English, with almost two thousand English words first attested in Chaucerian manuscripts.

His Works

Geoffrey Chaucer's body of work is incredibly significant, not just for its literary merit but for its profound impact on the development of the English language. Here are his most important works:

The Canterbury Tales: This is Chaucer's undisputed masterpiece and his most famous work.

• Summary: It's a collection of stories told by a diverse group of pilgrims who are traveling from London to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The pilgrims, representing various social classes of 14th-century England, agree to tell two stories on the way to Canterbury and two on the way back.
• Significance: The tales offer a vivid and satirical portrait of medieval English society, with characters ranging from knights and monks to merchants and housewives. Chaucer uses a variety of literary styles and genres within the tales, showcasing his mastery of language. It's renowned for its psychological depth, humor, and keen observation of human nature. Most importantly, it's written entirely in Middle English, firmly establishing it as a language capable of sophisticated literary expression.

Troilus and Criseyde: Considered by many to be Chaucer's second great work, this is a long narrative poem.

• Summary: It retells the tragic love story of Troilus, a Trojan prince, and Criseyde, a Trojan woman, during the Trojan War. Their love is tested by the war and ultimately ends in heartbreak due to Criseyde's unfaithfulness.
• Significance: This poem is a profound exploration of love, fate, and human frailty. It showcases Chaucer's skill in character development and his ability to convey complex emotions. It's written in "rime royal," a seven-line stanza form that Chaucer either invented or popularized.

The Book of the Duchess: This is one of Chaucer's earlier dream-vision poems.

• Summary: The narrator, a heartbroken man suffering from sleeplessness, dreams of wandering into a forest and encountering a Black Knight who is deeply mourning the loss of his beloved lady, "White." The poem is an elegy for Blanche of Lancaster, the first wife of John of Gaunt (Chaucer's patron).
• Significance: It demonstrates Chaucer's early poetic abilities and his engagement with courtly love themes. It's a poignant exploration of grief and consolation.

The House of Fame: Another significant dream-vision poem.

• Summary: The poet dreams he is transported by an eagle to the House of Fame, a fantastical castle where the goddess Fame arbitrarily bestows renown upon people. The poem explores the nature of fame, rumor, and the unreliability of information.
• Significance: It's a more philosophical and satirical work than The Book of the Duchess, showing Chaucer's growing intellectual curiosity and his willingness to experiment with form and content.

The Parliament of Fowls: This allegorical dream-vision poem is often associated with Valentine's Day.

• Summary: The narrator dreams of a gathering of birds, presided over by the goddess Nature, who are choosing their mates on St. Valentine's Day. Three male eagles vie for the affection of a beautiful female eagle, leading to a debate about different types of love.
• Significance: It's a charming and witty exploration of love, courtship, and social hierarchy. It reflects the courtly traditions of Chaucer's time and his interest in human (and avian) relationships.

A Treatise on the Astrolabe: This is a prose work, unique among Chaucer's literary output.

• Summary: It's an instruction manual on how to use an astrolabe, a medieval astronomical instrument. Chaucer wrote it for his young son, Lewis.
• Significance: This work demonstrates Chaucer's scientific interests and his practical knowledge. It's one of the earliest examples of technical prose written in English, showcasing the language's capacity for clear and precise explanation beyond poetry.

Chaucer's works are essential for understanding the transition of English from a lesser-used vernacular to a rich literary language, laying the groundwork for future literary giants like Shakespeare.

The literary works of William Shakespeare

The literary works of William Shakespeare (l. c. 1564-1616) are often regarded as some of the most important in the English language. Alongside his famous plays, he also wrote poems, including 154 sonnets. Included here are six of the best-known Shakespearean sonnets as well as two longer 'songs' from his plays.

Background: Shakespeare the Poet

In the summer of 1592, when William Shakespeare was still new to London and yet to establish himself as a playwright, an outbreak of plague swept through the city, forcing the theatres to close until the contagion had abated. Left in need of a new source of income, Shakespeare turned to writing poetry; as scholar Catherine Bates explains, "a choice and well-turned poem – if it caught the eye of a wealthy patron – might with luck and skill bring its author to the attention of someone in a material position to reward him" (Kinney, 413). And, indeed, Shakespeare won the patronage of the Earl of Southampton with his poem Venus and Adonis (1593), launching his career as a poet. While Venus and Adonis was incredibly successful in its day, the poetry Shakespeare is best known for today are undoubtedly his sonnets.

Sonnet Structure & Subjects

The sonnet is amongst the oldest and strictest of poetic styles, dating back to Italy in the 13th century – indeed, the word sonnet is derived from the Italian sonetto, or 'little song'. It was first used by Giacomo da Lentini at court in the city of Palermo, although the most famous of the pre-Shakespearean sonnet writers was undoubtedly Petrarch. His version of the sonnet – called the Petrarchan sonnet – requires 14 lines of iambic pentameter and a rhyme scheme that follows this pattern: ABBA ABBA CDECDE (Shakespeare would modify this rhyme scheme to ABAB CDCD EFEF GG). Sonnets also include a volta, or turn, which divides the poem into two parts, often called the 'proposition' and the 'resolution'. In the 'proposition', comprising the first part of the sonnet, a problem or question is presented. The volta provides a turning point in the narrator's thought, leading into the second part of the sonnet, the 'resolution', which gives a solution or a new perspective to the matter at hand. In medieval literature, classic Petrarchan sonnets are divided into an octave (first eight lines) and a sestet (last six lines). Shakespeare, however, organizes his sonnets differently, utilizing three quatrains (four-line stanzas) followed by a couplet.

Shakespeare's 154 sonnets can, roughly, be divided into three groups, based on the differing subjects to which they are addressed. The vast majority – sonnets 1-126 – are addressed to a 'Fair Youth', a beauteous and self-centered young man who is viewed by the narrator in a friendly, admiring, and, at times, homoerotic way. The identity of the 'Fair Youth' has also been debated by scholars, with the Earl of Southampton once again a leading contender; authors such as Oscar Wilde have speculated whether the 'Fair Youth' could have been William Hughes, a comely young man who often played the female parts in Shakespeare's plays. Sonnets 127-152 are addressed to the 'Dark Lady' and are more overtly erotic than the preceding group. As with the 'Fair Youth', the identity of a real 'Dark Lady' is debated, with several candidates having been put forth. Emilia Lanier, considered England's first professional female poet, is one of the most popular candidates for the inspiration behind the 'Dark Lady'. The final two sonnets, as Bates puts it, involve "racy mythological fables about Cupid" and "are based on the style of the Greek poet Anacreon" (Kinney, 426).

Sonnet 18

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate:

Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,

And summer's lease hath all too short a date;

Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,

And often is his gold complexion dimm'd;

And every fair from fair sometime declines,

By chance or nature's changing course untrimm'd;

But thy eternal summer shall not fade,

Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st;

Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,

When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st:

So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,

So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

Sonnet 19

Devouring Time, blunt thou the lion's paws,

And make the earth devour her own sweet brood;

Pluck the keen teeth from the fierce tiger's jaws,

And burn the long-lived phoenix in her blood;

Make glad and sorry seasons as thou fleet'st,

And do whate'er thou wilt, swift-footed Time,

To the wide world and all her fading sweets:

But I forbid thee one most heinous crime –

Oh carve not with thy hours my love's fair brow

Nor draw no lines there with thine antique pen;

Him in thy course untainted do allow

For beauty's pattern to succeeding men.

Yet do thy worst, old Time: despite thy wrong

My love shall in my verse ever live young.

Sonnet 29

When, in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes,

I all alone beweep my outcast state,

And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries,

And look upon myself and curse my fate,

Wishing me like to one more rich in hope,

Featured like him, like him with friends possessed,

Desiring this man's art and that man's scope,

With what I most enjoy contented least;

Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising,

Haply I think on thee, and then my state,

(Like to the lark at break of day arising

From sullen earth) sings hymns at heaven's gate;

For thy sweet love remembered such wealth brings

That then I scorn to change my state with kings.

Sonnet 53

What is your substance, whereof are you made,

That millions of strange shadows on you tend?

Since every one hath, every one, one shade,

And you, but one, can every shadow lend.

Describe Adonis, and the counterfeit

Is poorly imitated after you;

On Helen's cheek all art of beauty set,

And you in Grecian tires are painted new.

Speak of the spring and foison of the year:

The one doth shadow of your beauty show,

The other as your bounty doth appear,

And you in every blessèd shape we know.

In all external grace you have some part,

But you like none, none you for constant heart.

Sonnet 130

My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun;

Coral is far more red than her lips' red;

If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;

If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head;

I have seen roses demasked, red and white,

But no such roses see I in her cheeks;

And in some perfumes is there more delight

Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks;

I love to hear her speak, yet well I know

That music hath a far more pleasing sound;

I grant I never saw a goddess go

(My mistress when she walks treads on the ground).

And yet by heaven I think my love as rare

As any she belied with false compare.

Sonnet 144

Two loves I have, of comfort and despair,

Which like two spirits do suggest me still:

The better angel is a man right fair,

The worser spirit a woman coloured ill.

To win me soon to hell, my female evil

Tempteth my better angel from my side,

And would corrupt my saint to be a devil,

Wooing his purity with her foul pride.

And whether that my angel be turned fiend

Suspect I may, yet not directly tell;

But being both from me, both to each friend,

I guess one angel in another's hell:

Yet this shall I ne'er know, but live in doubt

Till my bad angel fire my good one out.

Song: The Wind and the Rain (from Twelfth Night)

When that I was and a little tiny boy,

With hey, ho, the wind and the rain,

A foolish thing was but a toy,

For the rain it raineth every day.

But when I came to man's estate,

With hey, ho, the wind and the rain,

'Gainst knaves and thieves men shut their gate,

For the rain it raineth every day.

But when I came, alas! to wive,

With hey, ho, the wind and the rain,

By swaggering could I never thrive,

For the rain it raineth every day.

But when I came unto my beds,

With hey, ho, the wind and the rain,

With tosspots still had drunken heads,

For the rain it raineth every day.

A great while ago the world begun,

With hey, ho, the wind and the rain;

But that's all one, our play is done,

And we'll strive to please you every day.

Song: Fear No More (from Cymbeline)

Fear no more the heat o' the sun,

Nor the furious winter's rages;

Thou thy worldly task hast done,

Home art gone, and ta'en thy wages;

Golden lads and girls all must,

As chimney-sweepers, come to dust.

Fear no more the frown o' the great,

Thou art past the tyrant's stroke;

Care no more to clothe and eat,

To thee the reed is as the oak:

The sceptre, learning, physic, must

All follow this, and come to dust.

Fear no more the lightning flash,

Nor the all-dreaded thunder stone;

Fear not slan

der, censure rash;

Thou hast finished joy and moan:

All lovers young, all lovers must

Consign to thee and come to dust.

No exorciser harm thee!

Nor no witchcraft charm thee!

Ghost unlaid forbear thee!

Nothing ill come near thee!

Quiet consummation have,

And renownèd be thy grave.

Oscar Wilde: a fiction classic writer, poet, play writer

 Oscar Wilde: a fiction classic writer, poet, play writer

Flamboyant man-about-town, Oscar Wilde had a reputation that preceded him, especially in his early career. He was born to a middle-class Irish family (his father was a surgeon) and was trained as a scholarship boy at Trinity College, Dublin. He subsequently won a scholarship to Magdalen College, Oxford, where he was heavily influenced by John Ruskin and Walter Pater, whose aestheticism was taken to its radical extreme in Wilde's work. By 1879 he was already known as a wit and a dandy; soon after, in fact, he was satirized in Gilbert and Sullivan's Patience. Largely on the strength of his public persona, Wilde undertook a lecture tour to the United States in 1882, where he saw his play Vera open---unsuccessfully---in New York. His first published volume, Poems, which met with some degree of approbation, appeared at this time. In 1884 he married Constance Lloyd, the daughter of an Irish lawyer, and within two years they had two sons. During this period he wrote, among others, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), his only novel, which scandalized many readers and was widely denounced as immoral. Wilde simultaneously dismissed and encouraged such criticism with his statement in the preface, "There is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book. Books are well written or badly written. That is all." In 1891 Wilde published A House of Pomegranates, a collection of fantasy tales, and in 1892 gained commercial and critical success with his play, Lady Windermere's Fan He followed this comedy with A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895), and his most famous play, The Importance of Being Earnest (1895). During this period he also wrote Salome, in French, but was unable to obtain a license for it in England. Performed in Paris in 1896, the play was translated and published in England in 1894 by Lord Alfred Douglas and was illustrated by Aubrey Beardsley. Lord Alfred was the son of the Marquess of Queensbury, who objected to his son's spending so much time with Wilde because of Wilde's flamboyant behavior and homosexual relationships. In 1895, after being publicly insulted by the marquess, Wilde brought an unsuccessful slander suit against the peer. The result of his inability to prove slander was his own trial on charges of sodomy, of which he was found guilty and sentenced to two years of hard labor. During his time in prison, he wrote a scathing rebuke to Lord Alfred, published in 1905 as De Profundis. In it he argues that his conduct was a result of his standing "in symbolic relations to the art and culture" of his time. After his release, Wilde left England for Paris, where he wrote what may be his most famous poem, The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898), drawn from his prison experiences. Among his other notable writing is The Soul of Man under Socialism (1891), which argues for individualism and freedom of artistic expression. There has been a revived interest in Wilde's work; among the best recent volumes are Richard Ellmann's, Oscar Wilde and Regenia Gagnier's Idylls of the Marketplace , two works that vary widely in their critical assumptions and approach to Wilde but that offer rich insights into his complex character.