The Historical Roots of Terrorism

How terrorism begins in the world, philosophy and psychology of terrorism

For illustration purpose only

Terrorism emerged as a tactic in ancient times, with early examples like the 1st-century Sicarii Zealots who assassinated Roman collaborators in Judea to instill fear, though the modern term originated during the French Revolution's Reign of Terror in 1793-1794, when Jacobins used mass executions to enforce obedience.[1][2] Groups like the 11th-century Hashshashin and 19th-century Fenian Brotherhood advanced tactics such as targeted killings and dynamite campaigns to achieve political ends.[3][1]

Historical Origins

Roots trace to religious and nationalist zealots resisting occupation, such as the Sicarii poisoning wells and assassinating foes in ancient Judea.[4][1] Modern terrorism evolved in the 19th century with organizations like the Irish Republican Brotherhood's 1881 dynamite campaign in Britain, marking a shift to explosives for widespread fear rather than just assassination.[3] Waves of terrorism, as theorized by scholars like Rapoport, progressed from anarchist bombings to religious "holy terror" by groups like al-Qaeda.[5][1]

Philosophical Underpinnings

Terrorism involves calculated violence to spread fear and coerce political change, often justified by perpetrators as a moral imperative against perceived evils like oppression.[2][6] Religious terrorists view indiscriminate killing as a divine duty, transcending political goals, while secular variants aim for instrumental gains like policy shifts.[3][7] Critics argue it lacks moral justification due to targeting innocents, fueled instead by nationalism, resentment, and illusions of victimhood.[8]

Psychological Drivers

Most terrorists lack clinical mental illness, as groups screen for stability, but many harbor low self-esteem, humiliation, hopelessness, and revenge needs from trauma.[9][10][11] Radicalization exploits quests for identity, significance, and belonging, with organizations framing rhetoric around persecution to recruit.[9][7] Aggression blends emotional rage with strategic planning to impose long-term costs on enemies.

Historical roots of terrorism by era

Terrorism's roots span ancient assassinations to modern ideological campaigns, evolving with political contexts and technologies. Scholars often divide its history into eras or "waves," starting from proto-terrorist acts in antiquity. Key developments reflect shifts from religious zealotry to nationalist and ideological violence.

Ancient Era (1st Century AD)

Jewish Sicarii Zealots in Roman-occupied Judea used daggers for stealth assassinations of collaborators, aiming to spark rebellion through fear.[1] These acts targeted public figures to demoralize occupiers and intimidate locals.

Medieval Era (11th Century)

The Hashshashin (Assassins), an Ismaili Muslim sect in Persia and Syria, conducted targeted killings of political and religious leaders using suicide missions.[1][3] Their tactic influenced later groups by blending religious fanaticism with psychological terror.

Revolutionary Era (Late 18th Century)

The French Revolution's Reign of Terror (1793-1794) marked the term's origin, as Jacobins executed thousands via guillotine to enforce state loyalty and crush dissent. This state-sponsored violence set a precedent for using mass fear politically.

Anarchist Wave (1880s-1920s)

Anarchists like Narodnaya Volya assassinated leaders across Europe and the US, promoting "propaganda of the deed" through bombings. Dynamite enabled urban attacks, targeting symbols of authority.

Anti-Colonial Wave (1920s-1960s)

Groups fought empires, such as Irish Republicans and Algerian FLN using bombings against British and French rule. Violence focused on liberation, with assassinations of colonial officials.

New Left Wave (1960s-1990s)

Marxist groups like Germany's Red Army Faction and Italy's Red Brigades conducted kidnappings and bombings against capitalism and imperialism. Tactics emphasized urban guerrilla warfare.

Religious Wave (1979-Present)

Islamist groups like al-Qaeda shifted to global jihad, using suicide bombings and mass casualty attacks for apocalyptic goals. This era features decentralized networks and religious justification.

Citations:

[1] History of terrorism - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_terrorism

[2] Terrorism | Definition, History, Examples, Groups, & Facts https://www.britannica.com/topic/terrorism

[3] Terrorism - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism

[4] A Brief History of Terrorism https://tdhj.org/blog/post/history-terrorism/

[5] Video - A Brief History of Terrorism https://www.dvidshub.net/video/873365/brief-history-terrorism

[6] Terrorism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/terrorism/

[7] The Psychology of Terrorism https://items.ssrc.org/after-september-11/the-psychology-of-terrorism/

[8] Terrorism, Justification and Illusion https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctytho/SmilanskyTerrorism.html

[9] Rethinking the Philosophy of Terrorism https://gtr.ukri.org/projects

[10] Psychology of Terrorism https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/208552.pdf

[11] The psychological aspects of terrorism: from denial to ... https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1299349/

[12] Terrorism in Historical Perspective https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/topic_display.cfm?tcid=94

[13] Chapter: 2. Origins and Contexts of Terrorism https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/10570/chapter/4

[14] Digital History http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/topic_display.cfm?tcid=94

[15] The Psychology of Terrorism and Radicalization https://ideaexchange.uakron.edu/honors_research_projects/62/

[16] NCJRS Virtual Library https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/inspiration-and-origins-global-waves-terrorism

[17] Philosophy in a Time of Terror: Dialogues with Jurgen ... https://press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/066649.ht

[18] Thoughts on the Philosophy of Terrorism https://scholars.law.unlv.edu/facpub/325/

[19] [PDF] The Mind of the Terrorist - France Diplomatie https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/critik_psychoterrorisme.pdf

[20] Origin, Objective, and History of Terrorism and Terrorist Or https://ideas.repec.org/h/spr/sprchp/978-3-030-96577-8_2.html

[21] Psychology of Terrorism https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1570&context=mhlp_facpub

[22] Terrorism - Our World in Data https://ourworldindata.org/terrorism

[23] Table of Contents - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://plato.stanford.edu/contents.html

[24] War - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/war/

[25] Terrorism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://www.thetedkarchive.com/library/igor-primoratz-terrorism-stanford-encyclopedia-of-philosophy/bbselect?selected=pre-post

[26] Anne Schwenkenbecher, Terrorism: A Philosophical Enquiry https://philpapers.org/rec/SCHTAP-12

[27] [PDF] Module 1 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM https://www.unodc.org/documents/e4j/18-04932_CT_Mod_01_ebook_FINALpdf.pdf

[28] Morals and Ethics in Counterterrorism|Conatus https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/Conatus/article/view/34495

[29] The Origins of Modern Terrorism (Chapter 26) https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history-of-violence/origins-of-modern-terrorism/5062F0C7EC20EDD5B3D839D153B497C7

[30] The Concept of Evil - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concept-evil/

[31] A psychological typology of terror organizations - ScienceDirect.com https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1359178921000161

[32] The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to ISIS on JSTOR https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctv1wxrp4

[33] Terrorism https://plato.stanford.edu/ENTRIES/terrorism/