Faminism in India history
Feminism in India is a long, multi-phase movement that began in the mid-19th century as part of social reforms and has evolved into a diverse struggle for full political, economic, and social equality of women within India’s patriarchal society. Its history is usually divided into three broad phases: the 19th-century reformist phase, the nationalist phase (1915–1947), and the post-Independence phase from 1947 onward [1][2][3].
First Phase: Social Reform (c. 1850–1915)
This early phase was driven largely by male reformers and a few pioneering women who challenged oppressive customs and demanded education and basic rights for women [1][2][3].
- Inspired by colonial modernity and ideas of democracy and equality, reformers attacked practices like sati (widow immolation), child marriage, ban on widow remarriage, and denial of property rights to women [2][3].
- Key figures included Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who led the campaign against sati and founded the Brahmo Samaj to promote women’s education and autonomy [2][3].
- In western India, Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule started the first school for girls in India in 1848 and fought against caste and gender oppression; Savitribai is often called the “mother of Indian feminism” [1][2][4].
- Tarabai Shinde, a radical from Maharashtra, wrote *Stri Purush Tulana* (A Comparison Between Women and Men) in 1882, the first feminist text in an Indian language, critiquing patriarchal norms and gender inequality [2][4].
- Pandita Ramabai, a scholar and social reformer, criticised Brahminical patriarchy and caste, promoted women’s education, and founded homes for widows and orphans [1][2].
During this period, women’s issues were framed as part of broader nationalist and social reform agendas, and many gains were limited to upper-caste, urban women [2][3].
Second Phase: Nationalism and Organised Women’s Movement (1915–1947)
The struggle for independence merged with women’s activism, giving rise to organised women’s organisations and greater public participation by women [2][4].
- Mahatma Gandhi played a crucial role by actively involving women in the non-violent civil disobedience movement against British rule, thus legitimising their presence in public and political life [2][4][5].
- However, Gandhi idealised motherhood and self-sacrifice, promoting a “respectable” Indian womanhood that was active but still confined to a moral and nurturing role, rather than full gender equality [2][5].
- Women’s organisations like the All India Women’s Conference (AIWC, founded 1927) emerged as platforms for lobbying on women’s education, franchise, and legal reforms [2][4].
- AIWC was closely linked to the Indian National Congress, and women participated in key movements like the Salt Satyagraha and Quit India Movement, but their demands for radical structural change were often sidelined [2][4].
- Other women’s groups, such as the Bharat Stree Mahamandal and later the National Federation of Indian Women (NFIW of the Communist Party), also worked for women’s rights, labour rights, and anti-colonial struggle [2][5].
After independence, the Constitution of India guaranteed equality between the sexes, equal pay, and special provisions for women as a “weaker section,” but feminist activism dipped as the focus shifted to nation-building [2][4].
Third Phase: Post-Independence Feminism (1947–Present)
From the 1970s onward, a more autonomous, class-conscious feminist movement emerged, moving beyond the nationalist framework [1][2][3].
- In the 1970s–80s, feminism re-emerged as a distinct movement, focusing on issues like dowry, domestic violence, rape, and women’s economic rights, and challenging the state’s “patronising” role in women’s welfare [1][2].
- The Mathura rape case (1972) was a turning point: the acquittal of two policemen in a custodial rape shocked feminist activists, leading to massive protests and the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1983, which introduced stricter laws on rape and custodial rape [2][4].
- The 1975–1985 UN Decade for Women gave international visibility to Indian women’s issues, and new women’s groups emerged that were critical of both state and NGO co-option of the movement [2][6].
- Feminists began to analyse how caste, class, religion, and region intersect with gender, leading to caste-specific and Dalit women’s movements, Muslim women’s rights campaigns (e.g., against triple talaq), and tribal women’s struggles [2][3].
In recent decades, urban youth, academia, media, and digital platforms have reshaped Indian feminism, with new campaigns on consent, workplace harassment, and LGBTQ+ rights [1][2].
Major Movements and Legal Milestones
Key campaigns and legal battles have helped define modern Indian feminism [1][2][4].
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005): A civil law providing protection orders and defining emotional, verbal, sexual, and economic abuse [2].
Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act (2013): Mandates Internal Complaints Committees in organisations and defines sexual harassment legally [2].
Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013: Expanded the definition of rape, introduced harsher punishments, criminalised stalking, disrobing, and voyeurism, and set up fast-track courts for sexual offences [2].
Nirbhaya case (2012): The gang-rape of a young woman in Delhi triggered nationwide protests and led to the Justice Verma Committee, whose recommendations influenced the 2013 amendments [2][4].
Sabarimala verdict (2018): The Supreme Court allowed women of all ages to enter the Sabarimala temple, striking down a custom banning menstruating women, and asserting that religious discrimination is unconstitutional [2].
Marital rights: The Supreme Court struck down Section 497 IPC (criminalising consensual sex with a married woman without her husband’s consent) in 2018, affirming women’s sexual autonomy [2].
Maternity and surrogacy: Recent judgments (e.g., 2025 order on maternity leave for third child) and the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021, have reshaped debates on reproductive rights and motherhood [2].
Key Themes and Challenges
Indian feminism is not a single, monolithic movement; it is shaped by India’s complex social hierarchies [1][2][3].
Caste, class, and religion: Feminism in India has been critiqued for focusing too much on upper-caste, urban women, leading to rise of Dalit feminism, Adivasi women’s movements, and Muslim women’s rights activism [2][3][7].
Multiple patriarchies: Indian women face oppression not only from men, but also from structures of caste, family (dowry, son preference, control over marriage), and the state, which often upholds unequal personal laws (Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Parsi marriage and inheritance laws) [2][3].
Development vs. safety: While states like Kerala show high literacy and health indicators, issues like sex-selective abortion, low workforce participation, and gender-based violence remain widespread, especially in rural and poorer regions [2][3].
Contemporary debates: Today, Indian feminism is engaged in struggles over digital rights, body autonomy, LGBTQ+ rights, workplace equality, and redefining “Indian culture” and religion in gender-just ways [1][2][4].
Citations:
[1] History of Feminism in India https://www.bebadass.in/post/history-of-feminism-in-india
[2] Feminism in India - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism_in_India
[3] History of Indian Feminist Movement - Queer Academia https://www.queeracademia.org/articles/history-of-indian-feminist-movement
[4] Feminism in India: From Early Pioneers to Modern-Day Reforms https://www.changeincontent.com/feminism-in-india-early-pioneers-to-modern-day-reforms/
[5] The History of Feminism and Doing Gender in India https://www.scielo.br
[6] The History Of The NGOization Of The Women's Movement ... https://feminisminindia.com/2020/05/13/history-ngoization-womens-movement-india/
[7] A Brief History of Indian Feminist Movements https://safaa.gws.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/386/2017/11/A-Brief-History-of-Indian-Feminist-Movements.pdf
[8] Feminism | Definition, History, Types, Waves, Examples, & ... https://www.britannica.com/topic/feminism
[9] Feminism in Modern India https://www.sikkimexpress.com/news-details/feminism-in-modern-india
[10] Theoretical construct of feminism in India: Historical context ... https://www.allresearchjournal.com